Terrible Justice, A Book Review

Whitestone Hill, this image appeared in Harper's Weekly, based on a pencil drawing by Gen. Alfred Sully. 

Terrible Justice, A Book Review

No Detail Too Grim Left Out

By Dakota Wind

Chaky, Doreen. Terrible Justice: Sioux Chiefs and U.S. Soldiers on the Upper Missouri, 1854-1868. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 2012. $39.95 (hardcover). 408 pages. Illustrations, maps, photographs, bibliography, and index.

Chaky’s Terrible Justice begins with the Ash Hollow conflict of 1854, as settlers migrated across the Great Plains to better lives on the west coast or in the Rocky Mountains. Her research was sparked after participating in an archaeological survey at Fort Rice, and she soon realized that as much as the story of adventure belonged to the soldiers, it was a story that ultimately belongs to the Sioux. She was not satisfied that so little was published about the military’s role in Manifest Destiny there at Fort Rice and across the plains.

An example of an outstanding feature in Terrible Justice is Chaky’s use of Little Crow’s actual name, which is Taóyate Dúta (His Red Nation), and her continued use of his real name throughout her book. She doesn’t mince words in her description of the punitive military campaigns – Generals Sibley and Sully were sent to make war, take prisoners, destroy food resources, and secure Dakota Territory for white settlement.

Chaky carefully constructs the 1863 Sibley campaign on the orders of General Pope and his orders to secure Dakota Territory from President Abraham Lincoln. Sibley’s march is an invasion, and the conflict between the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (the Great Sioux Nation) and Sibley's command began when his campaign left from Camp Pope on the Minnesota River, not when a young man from the band of Íŋkpaduta (Scarlet Point) shot and killed Surgeon Weiser.

Terrible Justice isn’t an apologist’s narrative. Chaky describes in great detail the gory violence and destruction committed by men, native and non-native; scalps taken by soldiers and warriors. But, she draws close when she includes brief remembrances of Pvt. Phebus, Sgt. Martin, and acting Gov. Hutchinson, several years after the Whitestone Hill massacre.

Federal “Indian Policy” has always been one of dispossession and displacement. As settlers advanced west into Indian Country, tensions erupted in an escalating conflict until the military came in to secure the peace by forcing first nations to sign treaties (land cessions and reservations). Treaties were generally signed by a majority of grown men, sometimes not even by that (ex. Treaty of New Echota).

The Sibley-Sully campaigns were pre-emptive. The Yanktonai, who, at that time yet lived in their homeland, were killed, imprisoned, and forced west across the Missouri River without ever signing a treaty to cede their lands. The land between the Missouri River and the James River is still unceded Yanktonai territory.

Chaky signed my copy, “Dakota, I hope I’ve represented the Sioux properly with this book. I enjoyed doing it very much. Doreen Chaky, 7/28/13.” It’s a book that’s not hard to read, but it’s straight content and elaborate description make it hard to read. These are my people. Chaky began her narrative that this was “the story of the Sioux.” A quick review of her bibliography reveals six recognizable works by first nations, and one hopes a second edition of Terrible Justice would draw on more the surviving oral tradition. 

Recognizing that there are many, many books available for purchase on the subject of the Little Bighorn conflict, Chaky brings her work to a tidy close, by barely mentioning that fight (one sentence). Wounded Knee receives no mention. That’s all right, not every history book about the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ needs to include that tragedy. Chaky focuses on the conditions of peoples, native and settler, of the Great Plains. 

It's a good book. Go get yourself a copy. The maps are a great visual aid.

Dakota Wind is an enrolled member of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe. He is currently a university student working on a degree in History with a focus on American Indian and Western History. He maintains the history website The First Scout.

The Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count

The Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count (above) is housed at the Detroit Institute of Arts. It was created by an unknown artist at the beginning of the reservation era in North Dakota. Image courtesy of the Detroit Institute of Arts. 

Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna Dakȟóta Waníyetu Wówapi

The Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count Revisited

Edited by Dakota Wind

Fort Totten, N.D. – The Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count was acquired by Mr. Milford G. Chandler in the 1930s on the Spirit Lake Nation Reservation (formerly the Devils Lake Sioux Indian Reservation). The keeper of this winter count is unknown. This particular winter count contains events that relate mostly to the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna Dakȟóta (Yanktonai) and the Huŋkphápȟa Lakȟóta peoples from 1823 to 1919.

Today, the Spirit Lake Nation is made up of some Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ (Yankton) and Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna who were invited onto the reservation some years following the 1863 Sibley Punitive Campaign, but is mostly comprised of Sisíthuŋwaŋ (Sisseton), and Waȟpêthuŋwaŋ (Wahpeton) Dakȟóta people for whom the reservation was founded.

In 1998, Dr. Linea Sundstrom rendered an interpretation of the Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count for the St. Francis Indian Mission website. It is re-transcribed here as follows: the year, the first line of text is as it was recorded using Missionary Dakota, the Missionary Dakota re-written using the Lakota Language Consortium standard orthography, a word for word translation, a free translation, and then any additional information or commentary.

1823

Wahuwas·eca ih·anpi.
Wahúwas ečhá iȟápi.
Ear-Of-Corn deliberately to-bury-something-they.
They cached ears of corn.

This year’s event refers to the Arikara War of 1823, in which Colonel Leavenworth led the Missouri Legion (soldiers, artillery, and even the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna and Thítȟuŋwaŋ) in the first ever US punitive military campaign against a Plains Indian tribe, the Arikara.

About 700-750 of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ fought under Leavenworth’s command in this Missouri Legion. At the end of the campaign, when the Arikara were utterly defeated and chased out of their villages, their fields of corn were seized by the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ for their use[1].

1824 

Wah·pes·a conkas·ke kii.
Waȟpé Šá čhúŋkaške khí.
Leaf Red Fence/Fortification to-take-away-something-from-somebody.
Red Leaf took a fort.

Red Leaf, an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna chief, is mentioned in the Blue Thunder Winter Count in the entry for 1845 when he was injured in a fight with an Arikara.

1825 Miniwicata.
Mní wičhát’A.
Water many-died.
Many drowned.

This was at Horse Head Bottom, also known as Gayton’s Crossing[2].

They were camping on the bottomlands of the Mníšoše that spring when an unprecedented rise of water quickly drowned over one half of the people. They say that this happened on the east bank of the river, opposite of the mouth of the Cannonball River. The Dakȟóta call this place Étu Pȟá Šuŋg t’Á (Lit. Place Head Horse Dead; Dead Horse Head Point) because, following the flood, the shore was lined with dead horse heads. They had corralled their horses for the night and nearly all were drowned but for a few[3].

Howard’s interpretation of this event mentions that over one-half of the people drowned[4]. Howard’s informant, Mr. Pete Big eagle, places this event not in North Dakota, but instead at White Swan Creek located near present-day Pickstown, SD on the Yankton Indian Reservation[5].

1826

Tas·pan ojued wanitipi.
Tȟaspáŋ Ožú éd waníthipi.
Apple To-Plant-Something at winter-camp.
They established winter camp at Apple Orchard.

Apple Orchard, or Apple Creek is located around present-day Bismarck, ND area. The creek is known as Tȟaspáŋla Wakpála (Lit. “Little Apple Creek”) for the wild Hawthorn trees. The fruit, or thornapple, are called tȟaspáŋla, which means “little apple.”

The Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna returned to Tȟaspáŋ Ožú time and again. It was a favorite place to winter, specifically mentioned in 1777, 1826, and 1861 for that purpose[6].

1827 

Isanyati akikantapi.
Isáŋyathi akíȟ’aŋt’api.
Santee to-die-of-starvation-them.
Many of the Eastern Dakota died of starvation.

1828 

Kiyahiyaze istasapi kici kicio.
Khiyé ahí yazé istášapi kičhí kíčio
Near to-come-here to-pull-with-the-teeth arm-red-they with to-shoot-and-hit-something-for-someone.
Someone close came, fought hand-to-hand, was wounded, and shot.

The pictograph for this year indicates that the wounded one’s name is possibly Ziŋtkála SápA (Lit. “Black Bird”), as evidenced by a rather plain black bird flying above him. The Mnikȟówožu winter counts Bush, Lone Dog, and Swan, along with the Sa’úŋ (northern Thítȟuŋwaŋ - Teton - Lakȟóta, in this case, the Itázipčho and Oóhenuŋpa) winter count kept by The Flame, all refer to a fight this year involving a man named Dead Arm who was stabbed in the arm by a Mandan Indian.

1829 

Kanpi kicitipi.
Kánapi kičhí thípi.
Way-over-there-them with reside-there-they.
They camped with them way over there.

The traditional territory of the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ (Yankton) and Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna (Yanktonai) lay between the Mníšoše (The Water-Astir; “Missouri River”) and the Čhaŋsáŋsaŋ Wakpá (White Birch River; “James River”) in present day North Dakota and South Dakota. The Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna dwelt north of the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ. Their northern most territory boundary lay from the mouth of the Čháŋté Wakpá (Heart River) and Mní Wakȟáŋ (Spirit Lake).

The image suggests that the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna travelled far to trade with a trader (the cabin) and wintered there with him (the thípi next to the cabin).

The Mnikȟówožu were living along the Wakpá Wašté (Good River; “Cheyenne River”) at this time. The Mnikȟówožu winter counts by Lone Dog and Thin Elk recall the arrival of the trader F.A. Chardon. Chardon established a trade post on what became known as Makȟóthi Wakpála (Earthlodge Creek) at Pahá Čhaŋ Igná YaŋkÁ (Hill In The Woods) along Makhízita Wakpá (Lit. “White Dirt River;” White River)[7]. Today, Makȟóthi Wakpála is known as Makȟásaŋ Wakpála (Lit. “Creamy-White-Earth Creek;” Whiteclay Creek).

The location of Chardon’s trading post lay between the historic territories of the Mnikȟówožu and Oóhenuŋpa Lakȟóta peoples. The site of the trading post lay within the borders of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation.

1830

Hewatamahica wicaktepi.
Ȟewák tȟamáheča wičáktepi.
Arikara [Ȟewák being a contraction of Ȟewáktotka] lean/skinny/poor men-killed-they.
They killed some poor Arikara.

According to the Blue Thunder Winter Counts and the White Bull Winter Count the Dakȟóta fought against the Arikara; the Arikara killed eight of the Dakȟóta in the fight.

1831

Wicasa num kiciktepi.
Wičháša núm kičhí ktépi.
Man two with killed-they.
Two men killed each other.

The pictograph for this year depicts two ikčéya wičháša, two common men, indicating that it was two Dakȟóta men who were killed this year.

1832 

Titankaobdica.
Thí tȟáŋka obdéča.
Lodge big square-sides.
A big cabin.

The High Dog Winter Count recalls the year as Thí tȟáŋka obléča káğapi (Lodge big square-sides built-they), that they built a large cabin that year. It was the first time a log cabin was built by a Lakȟóta.

1833 

Wicahpi hinhpaya.
Wičháȟpi hiŋȟpáya.
Nation-star to-fall-down.
The stars fell down.

Beede’s informants told him the Lakȟóta feared that Wakȟáŋ Tȟáŋka (the Great Mystery) had lost control over creation[8].

1834

Mato wan kiciwanitipi.
Matȟó waŋ kičhí waníthipi.
Bear a with winter-camp.
They wintered with a bear.

Blue Thunder and No Two Horns say that the Dakȟóta camped with a bear that winter at Čháŋté Wakpá (Heart River).


1835

Iktonwanotawica kasatapi.
Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna wičhákasotapi.
Yanktonai massacre-they.
Many Yanktonai were killed [in battle].

There was a battle between the Wazíkhute (Lit. “Pine-Shooters”) band of Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna against a war party of Pȟadáni (Arikara) and Miwátani (Mandan).

The depiction of the Hupáwaheyuŋpi (Lit. “Poles Pack-things-up-to-travel”) indicates that this wasn’t a hunting expedition, but perhaps an envoy including women and even children, non-combatants, on their way to the next camp or perhaps on their way to trade or treat with another tribe.

The Cranbrook Winter Count, a Huŋkphápȟa winter count, recalls this year as the massacre of a Lakȟóta peace party. The High Dog Winter Count, generally a Huŋkphápȟa winter count but also includes Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna information, has that the dead Lakȟóta peace party members were brought back on travois. The Blue Thunder Winter Count says that twelve Dakȟóta died in this conflict. The Butterfly Winter Count, a Mandan winter count, recalls the the deaths of thirty Dakȟóta though they probably counted the ones they wounded in battle as dead.

1836

S·aketepa wokiye wicatipi.
Šaké Tópa wókhiye wičháktepi.
Hoof Four to-make-peace men-killed-they.
They killed Four Hoof a member of a peace delegation.

Only Four Hoof is identified of the two figures depicted in this year’s entry. It is possible that this year’s entry is related to the previous year in that it involved a peace delegation with either the Arikara, Mandan, and/or the Hidatsa.

1837

Wicah·anh·an tanka.
Wičáȟaŋȟaŋ tȟáŋka.
Smallpox big.
There was an epidemic of smallpox.

There was an epidemic of smallpox which struck the Upper Missouri River in 1837. It was most deadly among the sedentary tribes like the Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan. Nomadic tribes like the Thítȟuŋwaŋ (Lit. “Dwellers-On-The-Plains;” Teton) were not as heavily affected by the disease.

The steamboat, S.S. Saint Peter, knowingly spread the smallpox threat to all the people it came into contact, particularly the native people who had little immunity to this deadly disease. By summer’s end, all the tribes living in the Missouri River basin or nearby were affected[9].

1838

Akiwicah·anh·an.
Akhé wičáȟaŋȟaŋ.
Again smallpox.
Smallpox again.

The Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna winter count by Roan Bear details that many people died from pȟózaŋ (lit. “Head-Sickness”). It is possible that this year’s entry recalls hemorrhagic smallpox, of which the first stage includes headache, fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, and severe muscle aches[10].

1839

Maza is·taya wanktepi.
Máza Ištáya waŋ ktépi.
Iron Eyes-In-A-State-Of the killed-they.
They killed Iron Eyes (lit. “Glasses”).

This was the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna chief otherwise known as Waáŋataŋ (lit. “He-Rushes-To-Attack;” The Charger) who was assassinated by one of his own people. He has fought in the War of 1812 as a young man, where he acquired the name “The Charger[11].” Towards the end of his life he favored wearing non-native attire, and even took to wearing green spectacles, from which his new name, “Iron Eyes,” was derived[12]. He died in the winter camp of the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna along Čhápa Wakpá (lit. “Beaver Creek”) in present-day Emmons County, N.D[13].

1840

Tamina wewe ktepi.
Tȟámina Wéwe ktépi.
His-Knife Blood-blood killed-they.
They killed His Bloody Knife.

This year refers to the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ chief His Bloody Knife, not the Huŋkphápȟa-Pȟadáni mixed blood Bloody Knife who served in the Fort McKeen Detachment of U.S. Indian Scouts at Fort Abraham Lincoln, and who died in the Reno Fight of the Little Bighorn.

The John K. Bear Winter Count details the victorious return of His Bloody Knife[14].

Blue Thunder says: Tȟámina Wé iwáktekdi kiŋ, Pȟadáni (His-Knife Blood returned-with-war-honors the, Arikara). His Bloody Knife returned with war honors against the Arikara. This was at the mouth of the Íŋyaŋwakağapi Wakpá (Stone-Make-For-Themselves River), or Cannonball River[15].

1841

Wicas·a itancan wan ktepi.
Wičháša itȟáŋčhaŋ waŋ ktépi.
Man chief in-particular killed-they.
They killed a chief.

The High Dog Winter Count refers to the death of a Hóhe (Assiniboine) this year named Ošpúla[16] (lit. “Cuttings,” or “Leavings”).

1842

Wakeya hdezena oti wankan.
Wakhéya kdézena othí wakȟáŋ.
Lodge striped to-dwell-within with-energy.
Dwelling within a sacred striped.

The Blue Thunder Winter Count calls this year: Tȟatȟáŋka Oyé Wakȟáŋ t’Á. Wakhéya kdézena uŋ wičháknakapi. (Bison-Bull Tracks With-Energy died. Lodge striped using above-the-ground [buried]-they). Holy Buffalo Tracks dies. They laid him to rest in a striped thípi[17].

1843

Wasicun maza wadowan.
Wašíčuŋ máza wadówaŋ.
Takes-The-Fat Metal to-sing-over-someone.
Iron White Man was sung over.

The alówaŋ, or alówaŋpi, is a ceremony involving singing over individual/s and ascribing status to him/her/them. Some people are sung over, honored, for deeds which have benefited the community. A person might be sung over and formally adopted by a family.

1844

Winyan was anog·uta.
Wíŋyaŋ waŋ oná ğú t’A.
Woman in-particular prairie-fire burned died.
A woman died died of burns from a prairie fire.

The Medicine Bear Winter Counts entry for this year recalls the same incident: Wíŋyaŋ onákte (woman prairie-fire-killed). A woman died in a prairie fire[18].

1845 

Hunkawoqinyuta.
Huŋká wóniŋ yútA.
An-adopted-person sang to-eat-something.
A beggar was adopted and fed.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count entry for this year says: Huŋkádowaŋpi (Singing-over-a-relative-they). They sang over someone in ceremony and made a relative[19].

The High Dog entry for 1846 says: Tabú’bu alówaŋpi (Something-Large-And-Unknown sang-over-someone-they). They sang in honor over a man they called Something Large. This one man, entirely alone, defended the staff, the Lakȟóta flag, against great odds in combat against the Crow[20].

Rev. Eugene Beuchel’s “Lakota English Dictionary” translates Tabú’bu as “something large and big that no one ever saw,” but also describes this particular word as when children pile robes on another child so that the one child becomes something big. It may be this last that describes this one man’s battle the Crow, against great odds that none could describe, and he came out victorious[21].

James H. Howard interprets Tabú’bu as “Humpback,” and the pictograph to represent Huŋkálowaŋpi (Adopted-person-singing-over-they), in which the quirt behind one figure is taking the other figure as his relative[22].

The pictograph for this entry seems to support that this man who was adopted was indeed hunch backed. The Cranbrook Winter Count (Huŋkphápȟa) notes an adopted man was also known as His Horse Runs[23].

1846

S·unkakan hih·dokapi.
Šuŋk’ákaŋ hiŋkdókapi.
On-horseback to-suddenly-happen-as-it-were-they.
A rider unexpectedly brought horses to them.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count entry for this year says: Šuŋg’híŋzi áwičakdipi (Horse-teeth-yellow captured-return-they). They brought back horses with yellow teeth[24].

The pictograph depicts a black horse with a white face.

1847

Was·icun num wopeton yankapi.
Wašíčuŋ núm wópȟetȟuŋ yaŋkápi.
Take-the-fat two to-buy-things to-sit-they.
Two white traders sat [camped] with them.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count entry for this year says: Wašíču nuŋpá kičhí waníthi (Takes-The-Fat two with winter-camp). Two white traders camped with them that winter[25].

Blue Thunder says: Ȟaŋtéčhaŋ Wakpá na Píğa Wakpá ožáte éd waníthipi. Wašíču wiínaȟbe kičhí waníthi. (Cedar Creek and Boiling Creek forks at winter-camp-they. Takes-The-Fat seducer-of-women with winter-camp). They established winter camp where the Cedar River and Boiling River converge. A white man, a seducer of women, camped that winter with them[26].

1848

Odowan wanji kicikici kte.
Odówaŋ waŋží kičhíkičhi kté.
Song One to-one-another killed.
One Song and another killed each other.

Medicine Bear says: Kičhí ktépi (Each-other killed-they). They killed each other[27].

Blue Thunder says: Pȟadáni na Wičhíyena kičhí čhapȟápi (Arikara and Wičhíyena with stabbed-they). An Arikara and an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna stabbed each other[28].

The pictograph for this entry shows men with rifles, not knives.

1849

Titanka osniyata.
Thí tȟáŋka osníyata.
Lodge big cold-at/in-[the].
A big cabin when it was cold.

Medicine Bear says: WatȟókhiyopȟeyA čhúŋkaške éd waníthipi (To-Trade fort at winter-camp). They wintered at a trading post[29].

Blue Thunder says: Wakíŋyaŋ Yuhá, Wičhíyena, čhaŋkȟáğathipi mahé t’Á (Thunder Has, Wičhíyena, wood-cut-lodge inside died). Has Thunder, an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna, died in a log cabin[30].

1850

Witkonasa was·icun wan kte.
Witkó NasÁ wašíčuŋ waŋ kté.
Crazy To-chase-large-game-in-a-communal-hunt take-the-fat a killed.
Crazy Chase Hunter killed a white man.

Blue Thunder says: Wópȟetȟuŋ waŋ Wičhíyena ópi. Matȟó Núŋpa thíŋktes’a t’eyÁ (Trader a Wičhíyena wound. Bear Two murderer-would-be caused-to-die). An Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna stabbed a trader. Two Bear puts the would-be murderer to death. This happened at a camp below present-day Mandan, ND[31].

No Two Horns says: a Dakȟóta man shot/killed a white man with an arrow[32].

The entry for this year depicts a Dakȟóta shooting a trader [figure with a hat] in the back with his bow and arrow.

1851

Heh·aka duta kici wanitipi.
Heȟáka dúta kičhí waníthipi.
Bull-Elk Red with winter-camp.
Red Elk wintered with them.

Blue Thunder says that Red Elk was an Arikara. This was at Mní Nažúŋspe KawéğA (lit. “Water Axe Broken”), Broke Axe Lake, an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna campsite located near present-day Washburn, ND[33].

Broke Axe Lake is what is commonly known as an “oxbow lake,” a former channel of the Missouri River. The name fell out of disuse and the site is now known as Painted Woods, whose name is derived from a tragic love story between a Mandan maiden and an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna brave[34].

1852

Matowas·te pte hiko.
Matȟó Wašté ptehíko.
Bear Good bison-to-attract.
Good Bear called the bison. 

Medicine Bear says: Matȟó Wašté ečíyapi ptehíko (Bear Good called-them-by-name bison-to-attract). Good Bear called the bison[35].

Blue Thunder’s entry for this year simply says: Psaóhaŋpi (Snowshoes). Blue Thunder and the variants say that they wintered at a site east of Fort Berthold, a place called either “Corn Hill” or “Cave Hill.” They also hunted many bison that winter[36]. Many winter counts recite a hard or difficult winter.

Another possible name of this site is a “coal hill,” where small strip mines later removed the deposit, which is about six miles east of old Fort Berthold, nearly halfway between old Fort Berthold and Fort Stevenson[37].

1853 Hetopa wan ktepi.
Hé Tópa waŋ ktépi
Horn Four the killed-they.
They killed Four Horns.

Blue Thunder says: Hé tópa uŋ waŋ ktépi (Horn/s Four wearing a killed-they). They killed a man wearing a headdress with four horns. According to Blue Thunder, a lone Crow warrior wearing a four-horned headdress charged into a Lakȟóta war party and died a glorious death at Čhaȟlí Wakpá. Afterward, all the warriors who had participated in this fight took to wearing four-horned headdresses in memory of the Crow’s bravery and his last fight[38].

1854

Osnikicizapi.
Osní kičhízapi.
Cold battle-they.
They had a battle that winter.

Medicine Bear says: Waníyetu kičhízapi (Winter fight-they). They had a fight that winter[39].

Blue Thunder says: Wičhíyena Hóhe ób kičhízapi kiŋ. Makȟá Sáŋ Wakpá éd. WahíŋtkA ktépi. (Wičhíyena Assiniboine with fight-they the. Earth Creamy-White River at. Scraper killed-they). The Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna fought with the Assiniboine. They were at White Earth River. They killed Scraper. Blue Thunder further says that this was at Fort Berthold[40].

1855

Putihinska waaks·ija.
Phuthíŋ Ská waáŋkičiya.
Beard White cared-for-with-them.
They took care of White Beard.

High Dog says: This was Gen. Harney who went to make peace with the Oóhenuŋpa (Two Kettle), Húŋkpathi (Lower Yankton), Huŋkphápȟa, Sihásapa (Black-Soled Moccasins; Blackfeet Lakȟóta), Mnikȟówožu (Planters By The Stream), Itázipčho (Without-Bows; Sans Arc), Iháŋktȟuŋwanŋa, and Sičháŋğu (Burnt-Thigh; Brule), in March, 1856, so that settlers on the Oregon Trail might pass by unperturbed[41].

Medicine Bear says: Phuthíŋ Ská wawáhoye kiŋ (Beard White to-order-things the). White Beard [General William Harney] gave the order[42].

Blue Thunder says: Phuthíŋ Ská wawáhoye kiŋ (Beard White to-order-things the). White Beard [General William Harney] gave the order. They were at Čhúŋaške (Fort Pierre) that winter. White Beard called a council and treated with them. They wintered with him[43].

1856

Kangi wicas·an wan wapaha aykusapi.
Kȟaŋğí wičháša waŋ wapȟáha ayúk’ezapi.
Crow man/men the warbonnet on-something-to-shear-off-they.
They sheared a Crow man’s warbonnet [off his head].

The High Dog Winter Count says that it was Good Bear who tore a shaved horn warbonnet from the Crow[44].

The Cranbrook Winter Count says that a war party of about 100 went into Crow territory to steal horses. The Crow spotted them, followed, and overtook them, forcing the Huŋkphápȟa into a fight. In one of the charges, a Lakȟóta grabbed a Crow’s warbonnet by its long tail. The warbonnet came apart in his hands[45].

1857

Tatanka Iyotanke wayaka akdipi.
Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake wayáka akdípi.
Bison-Bull Sitting-Down prisoner return-they.
Sitting Bull and his war party returned with a prisoner.

Blue Thunder says: Wičhíyena Hóhe ób kičhízapi kiŋ. Mníyaye Zí ktépi (Wičhíyena Assiniboine with fight-they the. Water-carrier Yellow killed-they). The Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna fought with the Assiniboine. They killed Yellow Water-Carrier[46].

High Dog says: Áta ktépi aglípi (Entire killed-they returned-they). They returned having killed all of them. The pictograph indicates that they killed the entire enemy war party, and counted coup three times[47].

Medicine Bear says: Tȟatȟáŋka Ináži wiŋyáŋ áwičakdi (Bison-[Bull] Standing woman captured-returned-with). Standing Bull brought back a captive woman[48].

The Cranbrook Winter Count says that a little enemy boy was killed. Praus’ notes on the Cranbrook Winter Count says that this year’s event refers to a raid on an Assiniboine camp where Sitting Bull and his war party killed an entire family, all but one, who was captured and later adopted by Sitting Bull. Sitting Bull gave his misúŋkala (younger brother) the name Tȟatȟáŋka PsíčA (lit. “Bison-Bull To-Jump;” Jumping Bull). Jumping Bull died in Sitting Bull’s camp on the Grand River in the fight against the BIA police when they came to arrest his čhiyé (older brother), December 1890[49].

1858

Wanbdihoh·pita.
Waŋbdí Hoȟpí t’Á.
Eagle Nest died.
Eagle Nest died.

Blue Thunder says Eagle Nest died of no sickness[50].

1859

Was·na ota.
Wasná óta.
Pemmican to-be-much.
There was much pemmican.

Medicine Bear says: Wókapȟaŋ paŋȟya (lit. “meat-block very-much”). There was very much meat prepared[51].

This year’s entry is depicted by a lodge, representing camp, with four thick lines on the side, representing representing wókapȟaŋ (meat blocks) or wakápȟapi (pounded meat). 

1860

Canhuta oqapi.
Čhaŋhúta Očhápi.
Stump into-dig-up-as-by-stabbing.
Dug Up A stump.

Medicine Bear says: Šuŋkawakȟaŋ óta áwičakdipi (lit. “Horses many captured-returned-with”). They returned with many captured horses[52].

High Dog says: Kaȟníȟniȟ siŋtéyapi (Choose-selectively tail-to-have-for-they). They carefully chose a [horse] tail for themselves[53]. Ten race horses were killed. A tail was carefully selected and a Tȟáwa Šúŋkawakȟaŋ Ópi Wokíksuye, or Horse Memorial Stick (commonly called “Horse Sticks) was created[54].

The Cranbrook Winter Count and the Mnikȟówožu Winter Count (White Bull) say that choice horses were killed. Praus’ notes in the Cranbrook Winter Count says that the best horse of Kȟaŋğí YatáŋpikA (lit. “Crow One-Who-Is-Highly-Praised”), or Crow King (a Huŋkphápȟa chief), was killed by an arrow. Overnight, all the best horses in camp were killed and the group scattered[55].

This year’s entry is depicted by eight horse tracks that seemingly has nothing to do with the accompanying text for the same year. The interpretation for this year would seem to be that it was ‘Stump’s horses that were killed. Perhaps it was later realized that it was ‘Stump who killed Crow King’s horse, which set off a retaliation.

1861

Itonkasanduta.
Hitȟúŋkasaŋ Dúta.
Weasel Red.
Red Weasel.

Medicine Bear says: Hitȟúŋkasaŋ Dúta šuŋkawakȟaŋ óta áwičakdi aktá (Weasel Red horses many captured-returned-with again). Red Weasel returned with many captured horses[56].

High Dog says: Itȟúŋkasaŋ Lúta ktépi (Weasel Red killed-they). They killed Red Weasel[57].

1862

Tiyokicizapi.
Thí okíčhizapi.
Lodge in/at-fight-they.
They fought at a house.

This year’s entry is depicted with a house or cabin. This year could refer to the fight that set off the 1862 Dakota Conflict in Minnesota when four young Dakȟóta men killed five settlers, or to the fight at the Lower Sioux Agency where the Dakȟóta raided the agency headquarters and killed the agent. No fight is actually depicted, only mentioned in the Mission Dakota text accompanying the pictograph.

The Wind-Roan Bear Winter Count refers to the Isáŋyathi, Santee or Dakȟóta, in a fight with the whites[58].

1863

Nasunatankata.
Nasúna Tȟáŋka t’Á.
Brain Big died.
Big “Head” Died.

Blue Thunder and Medicine Bear both say: Akíčhita Pȟá Tȟáŋka kaškápi. Kdí na t’Á (Soldier/s Head Big imprisoned. Return and die). Soldiers imprisoned Big Head. He returned and died[59].

No Two Horns refers to this individual as Nasúna Tȟáŋka, Big Brain, and not as Pȟá Tȟáŋka[60].

Wind-Roan Bear Winter Count refers to the Dakȟóta as captives in military forts. No forts are named, but this clearly refers to the imprisonment of the Isáŋyathi at Fort Snelling, MN, this year[61].

1864

Winyan num wicaktepi.
Wíŋyaŋ núm wičáktepi.
Woman two them-killed-they.
They killed two women.

Medicine Bear says: Wíŋyaŋ nuŋpá ktépi (Woman two killed-they). They killed two women[62].

These two women referred to in this year’s entry are quite possibly the white women who were taken captive during the 1863-64 Dakota Conflict in Dakota Territory punitive campaigns. One was Mrs. Eubanks, who was rescued by the Oglála Two Face and brought to Fort Laramie - her rescuer was hung; the other was Mrs. Kelly.

High Dog says: Wayáka wiyáŋ iyópȟeyapi (Captive woman exchange-for-they). They exchanged a captive woman in trade[63]. She was stolen from the Oglála by Brings Plenty, a Sihásapa who tried to arrange a trade for her, and he made her his wife. Kelly was given the name “Real Woman.” She eventually regained her freedom either by tricking her Lakȟóta captors into bringing her to Fort Sully (present-day Pierre, SD), or she was was escorted to Fort Sully by a Huŋkphápȟa man under the protection of Sitting Bull[64].

It would appear that the text accompanying the pictograph is in error. It is not. In the cultural context of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (The Seven Council Fires; “Great Sioux Nation”), when a women was stolen she was considered dead, whether literally or metaphorically, she died to her people. If she was stolen and was married into an enemy’s tribe, she might not ever be seen again. If a woman died in an enemy raid, she died. In either case, she was mourned and life resumed without her.

1865 Kepacapapi.
Khepȟá Čhapȟáp.
Turtle-Head Western-Painted-Turtle-them.
Western Painted Turtle Heads.

Medicine Bear[65], Blue Thunder (the British Museum variant)[66], and No Two Horns[67] say: Pȟatkáša Pȟá čhapȟÁ t’ekíyA (Jugular-vein-scarlet Head Western-Painted-Turtle stab to-cause-one’s-own-death). Blue Thunder adds that Turtle Head was stabbed to death at Kaȟmíčhiŋka (lit. “Bends-Back-On-Itself;” Big Bend), located at Big Bend, S.D. He was an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna.

1866

Ohunkakan ktepi.
Ohúŋkakaŋ ktépi.
Long-Ago-Story killed-they.
They killed Myth.

Medicine Bear says: Wóoyake Wičháša ktépi (Story Man killed-they). They killed Storyteller[68].

1867

Cahsu.
Čhaȟsú.
Little-ice-drop.
Sleet.

Medicine Bear says: Waníyetu osní (Winter cold). It was a cold dark winter[69].

Blue Thunder and No Two Horns say: Čháŋ Ičú čhiŋkšítku núŋpapi čhuwíta t’ápi. Waníyetu osní. (Wood Takes son/s two-they to-be-cold died-they. Winter cold.) He Takes Wood and his two sons froze to death. The winter was cold[70].

The Mnikȟówožu Winter Count (White Bull) says the winter was icy. A heavy snow fell, followed by a week’s thaw, then a freeze. The landscape was covered with ice[71].

The Drifting Goose Winter Count (the John K. Bear Winter Count) says: Bdé Haŋská éd wonáseta akíčhita waŋ čhuwíta t’Á (Water Long at bison-hunting soldier a to-be-cold died). A soldier froze to death on a bison hunt at Long Lake[72].

This year’s entry is depicted by a blackened circle. The blackened circle can represent death, night, or winter. Some winter counts have used the same device to represent instead a full solar eclipse that happened in August, 1869. It was visible across the Northern Plains.

The New Lakota Dictionary lists two entries for an eclipse: Aháŋzi (lit. “Shadow”), and Aóhaŋziya (lit. “To-Cast-A-Shadow-Upon”)[73]. Mr. Warren Horse Looking (Oglála), referred to the solar eclipse as: Aŋpétuwi Tokȟáȟ’aŋ (lit. “Day-Luminary To-Disappear”). The Huŋkphápȟa refer to the eclipse as: Maȟphíya Yapȟéta (lit. “Cloud/Sky/Heaven On-Fire”). Mr. John Eagle (Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate) refers to the eclipse as: Wí’Atá (lit. “Luminary All-Of-It”). Ms. Leslie Mountain (Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate) refers to the eclipse as: Khaphéya (lit. “Of-A-Singular-Appearance”). An unnamed informant from Spirit Lake refers to the eclipse as: Wí’te (lit. “New Moon”)[74].

Many winter counts depict the eclipse as a blackened circle, sometimes including two stars. In those many other winter counts, in the Lakȟóta language, they refer to the eclipse as Wí’kte (lit. “Luminary killed”).

1868

Akezaptan wicaktepi.
Akézaptaŋ wičáktepi.
Again-Five them-killed-they.
They killed fifteen of them.

Medicine Bear and High Dog say: Itázipčho akézaptaŋ t’Á (Without-Bows fifteen died). Fifteen members of the Itázipčho (Sans Arc) died[75].

High Dog says it was fifteen Crow who were killed at Waŋhíŋkpe Wakpá (lit. “Arrow River”), presently called O’Fallon Creek, located in Montana[76].

The Cranbook Winter Count says that fifteen Lakȟóta were killed[77].

Vestal’s notes on the Mnikȟówožu Winter Count (White Bull) offer a fuller picture. A Thítȟuŋwaŋ war party of as many as thirty, mostly Itázipčho, went to fight the Kaŋğí. When they encountered a Crow camp the mounted warriors closed in as those on foot prepared log breastworks, but they were discovered and routed. Those on foot perished, while those on horseback survived[78].

1869

Kangi wicas·a 30 wicaktepi.
Kȟaŋğí wičháša wikčémna yámni wičháktepi.
Crow men ten three men-killed-they.
They fought and killed thirty Crow men.

High Dog[79], Cranbrook[80], Iron Hawk[81], Lone Dog[82], Swan[83], and the Mnikȟówožu Winter Count (White Bull), say the same. The Mnikȟówožu Winter Count (White Bull) says this happened at HéčhiŋškA Pahá (lit. “Bison-Horn-Spoon Butte;” Spoonhorn Butte), presently known as Mountain Sheep Butte, located in Montana[84].

1870

Tatankawitko wonase ta.
Tȟatȟáŋka Witkó wónase t’Á.
Bison-Bull Foolish/Crazy bison-hunt died.
Fool Bull died in a bison hunt.

Medicine Bear says: Tȟatȟáŋka Witkó t’Á (Bison-Bull Crazy died). Crazy Bull died[85].

1871

Wikos·ke num tapi.
Wikȟóške núm t’ápi.
Young-woman two died-they.
Two young women died.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count appears to be the only winter count that provides further insight regarding this year’s entry. It says: Witkówiŋ nuŋpá ktépi (Crazy-women two killed-they). They killed two prostitutes[86].

The Cranbrook Winter Count recalls that Shell Necklace killed a woman, but the motive is not revealed[87].

An unfaithful man might find his belongings outside the lodge; an unfaithful women might find herself set upon a horse and sent back to her parents. Generally, the punishment for infidelity was disfigurement. A woman or man might draw a knife through the others’ nostril, perhaps even cutting the nose off as well.

The death of two women, who are vaguely remembered on this year’s entry, and remembered as prostitutes on another probably served as a minder to all Očhéthi Šakówiŋ women that they were keepers of the nation and such behavior would not be tolerated.

1872

Wis ·aya oti ta.
Wíšaya Othí t’Á.
Dyed-Red To-Dwell-There died.
Red Lodge died.

Medicine Bear says: Wakhéya Šáya t’Á (Lodge Red-Painted died). Red Painted Lodge died[88].

1873

Is·kona tawa ewicayayapi.
Iškóna[ǧi] tȟáwa ewíčhayayapi.
Black-spot-inside-horse’s-hoof his/theirs there-with-happened-they.
They happened to find horses with black spotted hooves.

Medicine Bear says: Šuŋkawakȟaŋ nuŋpá áwičakdipi (Horses two captured-returned-with). They returned with two captured horses[89].

1874

Zaptan ahiwicaktepi.
Záptaŋ ahí wičháktepi.
Five came-here them-killed-they.
They killed five [of the enemy] who came.

Medicine Bear says: Wičháša zaptáŋ ahí ktépi (Men five came-here killed-they). They killed five of them who came[90].

This year’s entry depicts five common figures, some with a reddish hue, but this indicates that it was five of the Dakȟóta or Lakȟóta who were killed and not the enemy. The enemy is not identified. Other winter counts this year indicate conflict with the Crow in Čhaȟlí Wakpá Makȟóčhe (lit. “Coal/charcoal River Country”), or Powder River country, in Montana.

1875

Toka kinuwanpi.
Tȟóka khí nuŋwáŋpi.
Enemy stole/steal-something swim-they.
The enemies stole something then swam [away].

Medicine Bear says: Tȟóka nuŋwaŋki napá (enemy swim-home escape). The enemy escaped by swimming home[91].

Blue Thunder says: Šuŋk’akaŋyaŋkapi akíčhita tȟašúŋkawakȟaŋpi oyás’iŋ waíč’iyápi (Horse-riding-they soldiers horses-belonging-to-them all-of-a-kind to-take-things-they). The cavalry took all their horses[92].

Some of the Oglála winter counts recall 1875-76 as the year the soldiers confiscated the agency Indians’ horses in retaliation for the failed Centennial Campaign that ended in General Custer’s defeat at Pȟežísla Wakpá Okíčhize (lit. Grass-Greasy River Fight), the Battle of the Little Bighorn.

This year’s entry depicts what appears to be four Crow who made off with nine horses.

1876

Hehaka ta.
Heȟáka t’Á.
Bull-Elk died.
Elk died.

Medicine Bear says: Heȟáka t’Á (Elk died). Elk died[93].

1877

Was·ni waniyetu.
Wá šni waníyetu.
Snow-on-the-ground no year/winter.
There was no snow this winter.

Medicine Bear says: Waníyetu snižé (Winter withering). A withering winter[94].

This year’s entry is depicted with what appears to be an earthlodge. A heavy arch is drawn on the outside of the lodge, which doesn’t represent snow, but an intact earthlodge. No maintenance was needed to be done on the outside of the earthlodge because there was no snow. Typically, there is a lot of regular maintenance, or patching of the earth (sometimes clay) on the earthlodge after the snow melts, and especially after a rain.

1878

Tas·unkemaza ktepi.
Tȟašúŋke Máza ktépi.
Horse Metal killed-they.
They killed Iron Horse.

This incident is also recorded in the Medicine Bear Winter Count[95].

Nearly all the remaining pictographs that indicate a permanent sedentary lifestyle, as demonstrated with the depictions of fort palisades and/or cabins from this year’s entry up until 1911.

1879

Wapahasapa tawa ewicayayapi.
Wapȟáha SápA tȟáwa ewíčhayayapi.
Warbonnet Black his/theirs there-with-happened-they.
Black Warbonnet was there with them.

Medicine Bear says: Wapȟáha Sápa šuŋkawakȟaŋ óta áwičakdi (Warbonnet Black horse many captured-returned-with). Black Warbonnet led a successful horse raid[96].

This year’s entry depicts a warbonnet above a fort/cabin.

1880

Titonwan ouwicatapi.
Thítȟuŋwaŋ oúŋ wičhát’Api.
Teton state-of-living dead-they.
The Teton were in a state of deadness.

The Huŋkphápȟa returned from Canada in a couple of movements. Some returned with Phizí, or Gall, and surrendered at Fort Buford, others with Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake surrenderd a few months later[97].

The Huŋkphápȟa can be found today at Wood Mountain in Canada (those who stayed behind), Fort Peck, MT, and on Standing Rock, in ND & SD.

The Medicine Bear[98] and High Dog winter counts both say: Phizí thí (Gall lodge). Gall lodge. Rev. Aaron Beede notes that this year soldiers had fired into Gall’s camp on the Tȟačhéži Wakpá (Bison-Tongue River), Tongue River[99].

This year’s entry is depicted with three lodges within the confines of a fort/cabin.

1881

Wakinyan nupa ktepi.
Wakíŋyaŋ núŋpa ktépi.
Thunder two killed-they.
They killed Two Thunder.

Medicine Bear says: Wakíŋyaŋ Nuŋpá ktépi (Thunder Two killed-they). They killed Two Thunder[100].

This year’s entry is depicted by two Thunderbirds above a fort/cabin.

1882

Joe hoks·ina s·ahiya owicauspa.
Joe Hokšína Šahíya owíčha yušpÁ.
Joe Cree Boy some-men to-break-off-a-piece-with-the-hands.
Joe Cree Boy met with some [Crow] men and they traded.

Joe Cree Boy may be a reference to Joseph Picotte, a French-Canadian trader, a trade partner of Charles Primeau. Both men had Dakȟóta-Lakȟóta wives at Standing Rock[101].

The Cranbrook Winter Count says that three Crows came to Standing Rock on a mission of peace[102].

Medicine Bear and High Dog say: Kȟaŋğí wičháša yámni hípi (Crow men three came-they). Three Crow men came to them[103].

This year’s entry depicts a trader beside the fort and three Crow within the palisade.

1883

Matowakanta.
Matȟó Wakȟáŋ t’Á.
Bear With-Energy died.
Medicine Bear died.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[104].

This year’s entry depicts a bear “with-energy” [wavy lines within its body] above a fort/cabin, indicating that Medicine Bear died at the agency.

1884

Makaqapi.
Makȟá k’apí.
Earth dug-they.
They dug into the earth.

Medicine Bear says: Makȟá k’apí (Earth dug-they). They dug earth[105].

This year’s entry depicts an earthlodge with a heavy line around it. This may indicate that those who had earthlodges did some maintenance this year.

1885

Wag·unapin ta.
Waȟúŋ Nap’íŋ t’Á.
Scorches Necklace died.
Necklace Burn died.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[106].

This year’s entry is depicted with a figure wearing a choker above a fort/cabin.

1886

Wakanpahomini ktepi.
Wakȟáŋpahomni ktépi.
With-Energy-Turns killed-they.
They killed Turns Holy.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[107].

This year’s entry features a figure with stylized hair [Crow perhaps?], wearing a breastplate, and holding a discharging gun. Above the figure appears to be a name glyph, which seems to be something rotating in a counterclockwise direction. Oglála and Sičháŋğu winter counts recall hunting accidents on the Pine Ridge and Rosebud agencies.

1887

Mah·piyaheton miniwani kte.
Maȟpíya Hétoŋ Mníwani kté.
Cloud Horn Turning kill.
Turning Horn Cloud was killed.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[108].

This year’s entry is depicted by three common figures above a fort. The leftmost figure appears to bear a wound, the rightmost figure holds a discharged gun.

There was an Oglála named Horn Cloud and his wife, Nest, however both died about 1890. This year’s pictograph may refer to that incident.

1888

Isun manusa ta.
Išúŋmanuŋ t’Á.
Fails-To-Steal died.
Does Not Steal died.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[109].

This year’s entry depicts a figure imprisoned within the fort’s stockade.

1889

Sunka kan wan kiinyan kdi ta.
Šuŋkawakȟaŋ waŋ kiíyaŋkdi t’Á.
Horse a race-horse died.
A horse died in a horse race.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[110].

This year’s entry depicts a horse’s head above a fort/cabin.

1890

Tatankaiyotake ktepi.
Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake ktépi.
Bison-Bull Sitting-Down killed-they.
They killed Sitting Bull.

Major McLaughlin ordered the BIA Police to arrest Sitting Bull after word reached him about a ghost dance that was held there at Sitting Bull’s camp along the Grand River. Catch The Bear demanded the release of Sitting Bull, then ran for the officers when it was evident they wouldn’t release him, and shot Captain Bull Head. Bull Head in turn turned and shot Sitting Bull in the side, killing him immediately[111].

This year’s entry is depicted by an upright bison bull and two figures above a fort/cabin. The two figures in hats could represent Captain Bull Head and Sergeant Shave Head who were shot and wounded at nearly the same time.

1891

Matonape ta.
Matȟó Napé t’Á.
Bear Hand died.
Hand Bear died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure in a shirt above a fort/cabin.

The Indian Affairs Commission appointed Left Hand Bear as chief of the Huŋkphápȟa people in the summer of 1866. This may refer to his passing.

1892

Wanbditanka ta.
Waŋbdí Tȟaŋka t’Á.
Eagle Big died.
Big Eagle died.

This year’s entry depicts an eagle above a fort/cabin.

There was a Big Eagle (Mnikȟówožu) who signed the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty. This may refer to his passing.

1893

Akicita wan uta yapi.
Akíčhita waŋ utȟÁ yápi.
Soldier/s a/the to-fire-a-shot they-go.
The soldiers went there and fired a shot.

This year’s entry depicts a horse’s head and something else (a bird perhaps?) above a fort/cabin.

1894

Isanyati hoksina wan kataiyeiciya.
Isáŋyathi hokšína waŋ katáiyeičiya.
Santee boy a shot-himself.
A Santee boy shot himself.

This year’s entry depicts a figure hold a discharged gun above a fort/cabin.

1895

Wanbdiduta ta.
Waŋbdí Dúta t’Á.
Eagle Red died.
Red Eagle died.

This year’s entry depicts a red bird, eagle, above a fort/cabin.

1896

Mazakan narma kdi.
Mázakȟaŋ NaȟmÁ akdí.
Metal-With-Energy To-Conceal-One’s-Own return.
Hides His Gun returned.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin with a name glyph of a gun above his head.

1897

Canteya ta.
Čhaŋtéya t’Á.
His-Heart died.
His Heart died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin with a name glyph that resembles a leaf with stem, but could be a heart.

1898

Sunkahanska ta.
Šuŋká Haŋská t’Á.
Dog Long died.
Long Dog died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin with a name glyph of a dog with an elongated body.

1899

Iyansana ta.
Iŋyáŋšana t’Á.
Stone-Red-[familiar-diminutive] died.
Red Stone died.

The use of “-la,” or “na,” as a suffix, as with a person’s name, indicate a feeling of closeness or affection. The usage here indicates that the person was a beloved figure.

This year’s entry depicts a figure wearing a wapȟégnakA (a type of headwear, usually us quilled slat with feathers and/or plumes) above a fort/cabin with a name glyph of a red circular/oblong shape, probably a “stone,” indicating the name. The figure appears to be wounded, but the entry’s accompanying text indicates that he died (of natural causes) as opposed to being killed. Perhaps he died of natural causes which was somehow related to his old injury.

1900

Ia taninwin ta.
Iyá Taníyaŋ Wiŋ t’Á.
Voice Visible Woman died.
Visible Voice Woman died.

This year’s entry depicts a long haired figure (unplaited hair in pictography generally means this is a woman) above a fort/cabin with a name glyph representative of her voice above her head.

1901

Icabs·inte maza ta.
Ičhápsite Máza t’Á.
Whip metal died.
Iron Whip died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure set left and above a fort/cabin with a name glyph of a horse quirt which appears to be a gray color, definitely not black, which might support the interpretation of the image as that of iron.

1902

Sihawoheyun wan tawiciu kte.
Sihá Wóheyuŋ waŋ tȟawíŋ ičhíu kté.
Foot Bundle a his-wife with kill.
Bundle Foot and his wife were killed.

This year’s entry depicts two figures above a fort/cabin. The left figure appears to have a head wound.

1903

Wamanusicas·a wan ktepi.
Wamánuŋ šičá waŋ ktépi.
To-steal-things bad a kill-they.
They killed a thief.

This year’s entry depicts a lone figure above a fort/cabin wearing a hat with half his body blackened, indicating severe injury. In general, traders or white men are depicted with hats, but in the post-reservation era, native men took to wearing not just non-native clothing, but also hats; he does not have long hair. This figure could well be a white thief who was killed, or a native thief also wearing a hat who was killed. The text accompanying this year’s entry doesn’t indicate either possibility.

1904

Wapahasapa ta.
Wapȟáha Sápa t’Á.
Warbonnet Black died.
Black Warbonnet died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure wearing a warbonnet above a fort/cabin.

1905

Hanbziateyapi.
Háŋpa Zí atéyapi.
Moccasin Yellow for-whom-they-have-for-a-father.
They have Yellow Moccasins for their agent.

This year’s entry depicts a “beefalo” (a bison-cow mix) above a fort/cabin, which possibly represents that Yellow Moccasins is a mixed blood.

1906

Cetanwakinwa ta.
Čhetáŋ Wakhúwa t’Á.
Hawk To-Hunt/Chase died.
Chasing Hawk died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin with a name glyph of a bird of prey with its legs extended to pluck its target.

1907

Wanbdiwakan kataiyeiciya.
Waŋbdí Wakȟáŋ katáiyeičiya.
Eagle With-Energy shot-himself.
Holy Eagle shot himself.

This year’s entry depicts an eagle atop a fort/cabin, a rifle points at the eagle.

1908

Sisseton mazaska icupi.
Sisíthuŋwaŋ mázaska kičhúpi.
Sisíthuŋwaŋ metal-white [silver] to-restore-something-to-someone-them.
The Sisíthuŋwaŋ received a payment due to them.

This year’s entry depicts a circle above a fort/cabin. The outline of the circle is deliberately heavy and is one of the blackest things appearing on the winter count. A lighter circle of gray is painted within the darker one. This represents a silver dollar, or mázaska.

1909

Iyakcunipi ta.
IyÁ Kičhúŋnipi t’Á.
To-Speak To-Desist-Something-They died.
They Stop Talking died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin. Bold lines radiate out from in front of the figure, representing talking loudly or out loud to others, then nothing.

1910

Tonkasitominiduta ta.
Tȟáŋka Sitómniyaŋ Dúta t’Á.
Big All-Over-In-Every-Direction Red died.
Big Red All Over died.

This probably refers to Átaya Dúta (lit. “Entire Red”), or Red All Over, an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna man on Standing Rock who took his journey around this time.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin. A name glyph of a red circle appears above the figure, which might represent the figure’s name.

1911

There is no text for this entry.

This is the final entry on the Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count to feature a pictograph. This year’s entry depicts a figure wearing a trailer headdress and an ermine adorned warshirt. A name glyph appears with the figure resembling a horse. This may refer to Chief White Horse who resided at Spirit Lake and who took his journey.

The Iron Hawk Winter Count entry recalls Spotted Horse taking his journey this year[112].

1912

There is no text for this year’s entry, nor the following seven.

This year’s entry depicts a green square. The square, or divided square, has been used to represent farming in Plains Indian pictography. It stands to reason then that this year was a farming year, or a good farming year.

1913-19
These years all have the same simple line demarcating the years. This could reflect the feelings that they’ve entered a time when nothing happens. The line could also represent allotments, fractionization of the reservations, or the division of the reservations when they were opened up for sale to non-natives.

END NOTES
__________

[1] Innis, Ben. "The Heritage of Bloody Knife." In Bloody Knife: Custer's Favorite Scout, 9-12. Revised ed. Bismarck, ND: Smokey Water Press, 1994.

[2] Gayton, Mrs. Henry and Mr. Jim. "Region Three, Sioux County." Interview by Larry Sprunk for the State Historical Society of North Dakota. June 17, 1974.

[3] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[4] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 366.

[5] Howard, James H. "Yanktonai Ethnohistory And The John K. Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 21, no. 73, Part 2 (1976): 46.

[6] Ibid. Pp. 37 & 54.

[7] Hyde, George E. "Indian Paradise." In Spotted Tail's Folk: A History of the Brule Sioux, 25. Norman, Oklahoma: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1961.

[8] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[9] Chardon, F.A. Chardon's Journal At Fort Clark, 1834-1839. Edited by Annie Heloise Abel. 1st Bison Book Edition ed. Lincoln, NB: University Of Nebraska Press, 1997. 123.

[10] Higgenbotham, N.A. "The Wind-Roan Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 26, no. 91 (1981): 20.

[11] Robinson, Doane. A History Of The Dakota Or Sioux Indians. Reprint (1904) ed. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Ross & Haines, 1956. 85-87.

[12] Denig, Edwin Thompson. "Of The Sioux." In Five Indian Tribes Of The Upper Missouri: Sioux, Arikaras, Assiniboines, Crees, And Crows, edited by John C. Ewers, 32-34. Norman, Oklahoma: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1961.

[13] Howard, James H. "Yanktonai Ethnohistory And The John K. Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 21, no. 73, Part 2 (1976): 48.

[14] Ibid. P. 50.

[15] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Anthropological Papers Bulletin 173, no. 61 (1960): 375.

[16] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[17] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Anthropological Papers Bulletin 173, no. 61 (1960): 376-377.

[18] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[19] Ibid.

[20] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[21] Lakota-English Dictionary. Compiled by Rev. Eugene Buechel. Edited by Rev. Paul Manhart. Pine Ridge, SD: Red Cloud Indian School, 1983.

[22] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 379.

[23] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 16.

[24] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[25] Ibid.

[26] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 379.

[27] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[28] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 379-380.

[29] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[30] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 380.

[31] Ibid. P. 381

[32] Ibid.

[33] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 381.

[34] Welch, Col. A.B. "Red Tomahawk, ‘Sitting Bull was my friend, I killed him like this..’" Welch Dakota Papers. April 14, 2012. Accessed January 6, 2016. http://www.welchdakotapapers.com.

[35] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[36] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 381 & 382.

[37] Map Of The Missouri From Its Mouth To Three Forks, Montana, Plat LIII. Washington D.C.: Missouri River Commission, 1895.

[38] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 382.

[39] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[40] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 383.

[41] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[42] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[43] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 384.

[44] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[45] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 18.

[46] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 384.

[47] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[48] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[49] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 19.

[50] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 385.

[51] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[52] Ibid.

[53] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[54] Wooley, David L., and Joseph D. Horse Capture. "Joseph No Two Horns: He Nupa Wanica."American Indian Art Magazine 18, no. 3 (1993): 32-43.

[55] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 19.

[56] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[57] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[58] Higgenbotham, N.A. "The Wind-Roan Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 26, no. 91 (1981): 24.

[59] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 388.

[60] No Two Horns. “No Two Horns Winter Count.” State Historical Society of North Dakota.

[61] Higgenbotham, N.A. "The Wind-Roan Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 26, no. 91 (1981): 24.

[62] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[63] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[64] Vestal, Stanley. "The Captive White Woman." In Sitting Bull: Champion Of The Sioux, A Biography, 64. 1st ed. Norman, OK: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1989.

[65] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[66] Howard, James H. "The British Museum Winter Count." British Museum Occasional Paper, No. 4 (1979): 66.

[67] No Two Horns. “No Two Horns Winter Count.” State Historical Society of North Dakota.

[68] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[69] Ibid.

[70] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 391.

[71] Vestal, Stanley. Warpath: The True Story of the Fighting Sioux Told in a Biography of Chief White Bull. 1st Bison Book Edition ed. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. 267.

[72] Howard, James H. "Yanktonai Ethnohistory And The John K. Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 21, no. 73, Part 2 (1976): 55.

[73] New Lakota Dictionary. Compiled by Jan Ullrich. Bloomington, IN: Lakota Language Consortium, 2nd Edition, 2011.

[74] Goodhouse, Dakota. "Solar Eclipse Remembered As Fire Cloud." The First Scout. October 24, 2014. http://thefirstscout.blogspot.com.

[75] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[76] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[77] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 21.

[78] Vestal, Stanley. Warpath: The True Story of the Fighting Sioux Told in a Biography of Chief White Bull. 1st Bison Book Edition ed. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. 268.

[79] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[80] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 21.

[81] Sundstrom, Jessie Y., and Rebecca Halfred. “Translation of the Iron Hawk Winter Count.” Unpublished manuscript, 1988.

[82] Mallory, Garrick. "Lone Dog's Winter Count." In Picture-Writing Of The American Indians, 286-287. Reprint (2012) ed. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Dover Publications, 2012.

[83] Mallory, Garrick. "Time - Winter Counts." In Pictographs of the North American Indians, Annual Reports No. 4, 127. Washington DC: Bureau Of American Ethnology, 1886.

[84] Vestal, Stanley. Warpath: The True Story of the Fighting Sioux Told in a Biography of Chief White Bull. 1st Bison Book Edition ed. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. 268.

[85] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[86] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[87] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 22.

[88] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[89] Ibid.

[90] Ibid.

[91] Ibid.

[92] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 396.

[93] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[94] Ibid.

[95] Ibid.

[96] Ibid.

[97] Larson, Robert. "The Canadian Exile." In Gall: Lakota War Chief, 170-173. 1st ed. Norman, Oklahoma: University Of Oklahoma Press, 2007.

[98] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[99] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[100] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[101] Primeau, Tom. "Standing Rock: Heads Of Families By Bands 1885." Primeau. May 1, 1999. Accessed December 28, 2015. http://www.primeau.org.

[102] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 24.

[103] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[104] Ibid.

[105] Ibid.

[106] Ibid.

[107] Ibid.

[108] Ibid.

[109] Ibid.

[110] Ibid.

[111] Bullhead, Francis. "Letter To The Editor." Sioux County Pioneer, 1910.

[112] Sundstrom, Jessie Y., and Rebecca Halfred. “Translation of the Iron Hawk Winter Count.” Unpublished manuscript, 1988.

Apple Creek Fight And Killdeer Mountain Conflict Remembered

A painting of the Killdeer Mountain Conflict of 1864 by Carl Boeckman.

The Apple Creek Fight And

Killdeer Mountain Conflict Remembered

Dakota Conflict In Dakota Territory

By Dakota Wind

KILLDEER, N.D. - “Four Horns was shot in the Killdeer Battle between Sioux and General Sully’s troops…some time after the fight, his daughter cut out the lead bullet,” One Bull said to Colonel Alfred Welch on a hot July day in 1934 at Little Eagle, S.D. “The report [that] the soldiers killed hundreds of Indian dogs is untrue,” said One Bull, “because Indian dogs, half wild creatures, would follow the Indians or run away long before soldiers would come up within range.[1]

The Killdeer Mountain conflict occurred on July 28, 1864. Sully was under orders to punish the Sioux in another campaign following the September, 1863 massacre of Dakȟóta and Lakȟóta peoples at Pa ÍpuzA Napé Wakpána (Dry Bone Hill Creek), also known as Whitestone Hill.[2]

The Lakȟóta and Dakȟóta knew Killdeer Mountain as Taȟčá Wakútepi (Where They Hunt/Kill Deer), Killdeer. The hunting there was good and dependable, and the people came there regularly, not just to hunt but to pray as well. The plateau rises above the prairie steppe allowing for a fantastic view of the landscape, and open sky for those who came to pray.

A hand-tinted photo of Matȟó Watȟákpe by Frank Fiske.

Matȟó Watȟákpe (Charging Bear; John Grass), led the Sihásapa (Black Sole Moccasin; Blackfeet Lakȟóta) on the defensive at Killdeer. The Sihásapa had nothing to do with the 1862 Minnesota Dakota Conflict. “In this surprise attack the Indians lost everything… soldiers destroyed tons of food, etc.,” Matȟó Watȟákpe told Welch, and added that great suffering followed the fight and hatred against the whites grew.[3]

The Lakȟóta and Dakȟóta saw General Sully’s approach from miles away, his march put a great cloud of dust into the sky. Sully formed his command in to a large one mile square, and under his command was a detachment of Winnebago Indian Scouts, traditional enemies of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (Seven Council Fires; Great Sioux Nation). A war party of thirty warriors had tussled with the Winnebago two days before Sully’s arrival.

In Robert Larson's take on the Killdeer Mountain conflict, the Teton are overconfident and Inkpaduta was the chief who organized the defense against Sully.

Historian Robert Larson describes July 28, 1864, nearly perfectly, “…Sully’s five mile march to reach the large Sioux village was a tense and uncomfortable one. Even though it was morning, the day would be hot and dry; the tense summer heat had already thinned the grass and muddied the water holes. On every hill along the valley at the south end of the village were clusters of mounted warriors.”[4]

The Dakȟóta under ĺŋkpaduta (Scarlet Point) had been engaged with soldiers since the Minnesota Dakota Conflict of 1862. They had fled west towards Spirit Lake when General Sibley and his command caught up to them at Big Mound. The Huŋkphápȟa Lakȟóta under Phizí (Gall) had crossed the Mníšoše (Missouri River) to the east in search of game; the heat and drought had driven game from the traditional their hunting grounds. Sibley’s arrival and pursuit of the Dakȟóta and Lakȟóta towards the Mníšoše marked the first U.S. military contact against the Huŋkphápȟa.

Tačháŋȟpi Lúta pictured here in his B.I.A. police uniform. "Sitting Bull was my friend," he said, "I was under orders...I killed him..."

Tačháŋȟpi Lúta (Red Tomahawk), infamously known for his part in Sitting Bull’s death years later, recalled the Sibley Campaign, “There was a shallow lake south of the hills and about where Dawson now stands. That was fine buffalo country. The buffalo would get into this lake and mire down so they could not get out. We went there that time to drive them into the lake and get meat and hides. While we were there the Santees came along.”

Many of the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna, who were already dwelling in their traditional homelands, advanced west at General Sibley’s approach and “went directly to the Missouri River opposite the Standing Rock and occupied the country between Beaver Creek [Čhápa Wakpána; Emmons County] and Blue Blanket Creek [Šiná Tȟó Wakpána; Walworth County].”[5]

Tačháŋȟpi Lúta referred to the Isáŋyathi (Santee) as “hostile,” but that the Huŋkphápȟa camped with them and joined together in the hunt. He didn’t detail how the fight began at Big Mound, only that Sibley pursued them to the Mníšoše. The warriors held the attention of the soldiers, which allowed the Lakȟóta two days to cross the river. The ĺsaŋyathi under ĺŋkpaduta and Wakhéye Ská (White Lodge) broke off upon their approach to Tȟaspáŋla Wakpála (Apple Creek) and turned north.

ĺŋkpaduta pictured here. After the Little Bighorn fight he went into exile in Canada and died there in 1881.

The Isáŋyathi moved their camps in an arc, first northerly, then back east and south, and kept a respectable distance between them and Sibley’s retreat.[6] Šákpe (The Six) and his Bdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ Dakȟóta broke from the main body of Isáŋyathi and crossed the Mníšoše  with Hé Núŋpa WaníčA (No Two Horns) and his band of Huŋkphápȟa. Then they journeyed to Pa ÍpuzA Napé Wakpána to make camp and hunt with the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna the following month. Gen. Sully found the camp that and slaughtered as many as 200 and took over 150 captives, mostly women and children in both cases.

After the Dakȟóta split from the Lakȟóta, “we went to cross the river. We were not afraid,” explained Tačháŋȟpi Lúta, “We did not lose any of our people when we crossed.”[7] He admitted to being a part of the party who waited the night through and then attacked and killed two soldiers.

Here's a reconstruction of the Apple Creek conflict. The map comes from a survey of the Missouri River in the 1850s by G.K. Warren.

The late Delma Helman, a Huŋkphápȟa elder from Standing Rock, recalled the story of the Mníšoše crossing, “The soldiers chased us into the river. We cut reeds to breathe underwater and held onto stones to keep submerged until nightfall.” After sunset, they emerged from the river safely onto Burnt Boat Island (later called Sibley Island) and crossed the Mníšoše.[8]

Mike McDonald, a Dakȟóta elder from the Spirit Lake Oyáte, shared the oral tradition of the Wanéta Thiyóšpaye (The Charger’s Band) when they reached the Mníšoše, “The Wanéta band moved north and easterly in wide arc and settled near present-day Rugby, N.D. at Pleasant Lake. There they stayed until they were invited unto the Spirit Lake Indian Reservation.” The Dakȟóta call this lake Wičíbdeza Mní, Pleasant Lake.[9]

Three days after Gen. Sibley’s departure from Tȟaspáŋla Wakpála, Šákpe (The Six) and his band of Isáŋyathi came back across the Mníšoše, accompanied by Hé Núŋpa WaníčA and his band of Huŋkphápȟa[10], and made camp at Čháŋğu Wakpála (Burnt Wood Creek). Six days later, a mackinaw descended the Mníšoše with miners from Fort Benton and landed on a sand bar. A Dakȟóta wičháȟčala (an elder Dakota man) they called Ištá Sapá[11] (Black Eyes; father of Hé Núŋpa WaníčA) tried to warn the miners away, they shot him. The Dakȟóta retaliated and killed all the miners, and cast their gold dust into the river, thinking perhaps it was gun powder which had gone bad.[12]

The Sibley campaign was the first military campaign against the Huŋkphápȟa, Sully’s assault at Killdeer was the second. Sitting Bull’s own pictographic record testifies to his own portrayal, not as a warrior but as a medicine man, counting coup and stealing a mule from Sibley’s wagon train in July, 1863.[13] The pictograph testifies that the Huŋkphápȟa were east of the Mníšoše and present at the Big Mound fight against Gen. Sibey’s command.

Sitting Bull pictographed his part in the Big Mound conflict in which he stole a mule from Sully and counted coup on one of the men.

Historian Robert Utley estimates that there were perhaps as many as 1400 lodges at Taȟčá Wakútepi. It was a sizable village consisting of Huŋkphápȟa, Sihásapa, Mnikȟówožu, Itázipčho, Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna, and Isáŋyathi. Utley paints the Lakȟóta and Dakȟóta in overconfident tones: “they did not order the lodges packed,” explains Utley, “nor did they order the village moved, “The women, children, and old men, in fact, gathered on a high hill to watch.”[14]

But the camp was moved. At least the Lakȟóta camp was, from the west side of Taȟčá Wakútepi to the southeast side, below Medicine Hole the day before Sully’s arrival,[15] in a movement which placed a fresh water creek between them and the approaching soldiers. The Lakȟóta had learned the previous summer that water slowed or stopped the soldiers’ advance.

"Tȟatȟáŋka ĺyotake," says Ernie LaPointe of Sitting Bull, "that's his name."

Ernie LaPointe, Tȟatȟáŋka ĺyotake’s (Sitting Bull’s) direct lineal descendant, a great-grandson of the Huŋkphápȟa leader, offers this retrospective, “If it had been possible, Tȟatȟáŋka ĺyotake might have accepted peace terms that simply allowed his people and him to continue to live their traditional lifestyle.” As it was, Sully’s assault left one hundred Lakȟóta dead,[16] though Sully’s reports have the count closer to 150.

A map of the Killdeer conflict as it unfolded, courtesy of the State Historical Society of North Dakota. This author is currently working on a map of the conflict from the perspective of the Lakȟóta.

The Lakȟóta camp had moved in a position which faced Sully’s left flank; ĺŋkpaduta’s camp faced Sully’s right. A hunting party, possibly a war party though all the men were as much prepared to fight as to hunt, skirmished with Sully’s Winnebago scouts earlier that day. Sully’s command, five miles away, approached Taȟčá Wakútepi for a showdown.

When the soldiers got closer, a lone Lakȟóta warrior, Šúŋka Waŋžíla (Lone Dog), decided to test the fighting resolve of the soldiers and boldly rode his horse within range of fire. The soldiers fired three times at him. Tȟatȟáŋka Ská (White Bull) believed that Šúŋka Waŋžíla lived a wakȟáŋ life, charmed some would say in English. “Šúŋka Waŋžíla,” explained Tȟatȟáŋka Ská, “…was with a ghost and it was hard to shoot him.”[17]

A map of the 1864 Sully campaign in Dakota Territory.

Lt. Col. John Pattee, under Sully’s command that day, said of Šúŋka Waŋžíla riding, waving, and whooping at the soldiers, that an aide from Sully approached him, “The General sends his compliments and wishes you to kill that Indian for God’s sake.” Pattee ordered three sharpshooters to bring down Šúŋka Waŋžíla. One shot, according to Pattee, sent Šúŋka Waŋžíla from his horse, though Sully claimed the warrior fell from his horse.[18]

According to the pictographic record of Šúŋka Waŋžíla, he was riding, armed with bow and arrows, carrying black shields as much for practical protection as for spiritual protection, and received one wound.[19]

The fighting continued north for the five miles it took for Sully’s command to reach the encampments. For those five miles, the Lakȟóta held the soldiers’ attention, at times in brutal hand to hand combat. The Lakȟóta managed to outflank Sully’s men, which threatened the wagons and horses, so Sully ordered artillery to open fire. When the fight approached the encampments, the women hastened to break and flee. Frances “Fanny” Kelly, a captive of the Lakȟóta said that as soon as soldiers were sighted, the women withdrew into the hills, woods, and ravines, around Taȟčá Wakútepi, for protection.[20]

Taȟčá Wakútepi (Killdeer Mountain), a view from the south looking north.

On the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna and Isáŋyathi side of the conflict, the fight for the Dakȟóta became a stubborn retreat back to the encampments at the base of Taȟčá Wakútepi. There the soldiers broke into heavy fire into the Dakȟóta protectors until they finally broke. White Bull told Stanley Vestal that the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna and Isáŋyathi were as strangers to the Lakȟóta, and that they lost thirty when their line of defense broke.[21]

In a dialog with Mr. Timothy Hunts In Winter, there was a woman, an ancestor of his, Ohítika Wiŋ (Brave Woman) who fought at Killdeer. “She was only 14 on the day of the Killdeer fight but she fought alongside her até (father). Her até was killed that day in battle,” explained Hunts In Winter, “she was named Ohítika Wiŋ because she was a woman warrior.”[22]

The Lakȟóta and Dakȟóta encampment lay on the other side of this coulee (the treeline in the middle ground). The Lakȟóta camp moved here from the southwest side of the plateau.

From the Lakȟóta camp there came a singer escorting a man known as The-Man-Who-Never-Walked, a cripple since birth. His limbs were twisted and shrunken and in all his forty winters, he had never once hunted nor fought. When the soldiers came to the camp, The-Man-Who-Never-Walked knew that this was his one chance to fight. He was loaded onto a travois and a creamy white horse pulled the drag. The singer led him to where Tȟatȟáŋka ĺyotake was watching the fight.

When the singer finished his song, he called out, “This man has been a cripple all his life. He has never gone to war. Now he asks to be put into this fight.” Tȟatȟáŋka ĺyotake replied, “That is perfectly all right. Let him die in battle if he wants to.” White Bull later said of Tȟatȟáŋka ĺyotake, “Sitting Bull’s heart was full that day. He was proud of his nation. Even the helpless were eager to do battle in defense of their people.”[23] The horse was whipped and drove The-Man-Who-Never-Walked straight into a line of soldiers, who shot the horse then him. They called him Čhaŋte Matȟó (Bear’s Heart) after that because of his great courage.

A closer look at the south-facing slope of Taȟčá Wakútepi, below Medicine Hole. They would have ascended the plateau going around the landmark and over.

Íŋkpaduta engaged in a counter-attack on Sully’s right flank to stall his approach and lost twenty-seven warriors in hand to hand fighting. The Isáŋyathi broke just as Sully’s artillery began to fire upon the encampment.

Women and children who hadn’t retreated into the hills and ravines west of Taȟčá Wakútepi were suddenly in the fight. The women gathered what they could before abandoning camp, and young boys shepherded the horses to safety. “Children cried, the dogs were under everybody’s feet, mules balked, and pack horses took fright at the shell-fire or snorted at the drifting smoke behind them,” according to Frances Kelly.[24]

The Badlands west of Taȟčá Wakútepi. Thousands of places to hide and rendezvous on top of generations of intimate familiarity with the land helped the Lakȟóta remain elusive.

The Lakȟóta and Dakȟóta turned west into the Badlands, and there evaded capture.

The smoke cleared and over a hundred Lakȟóta and Dakȟóta lay dead. Sully ordered troops to destroy everything left behind. Lodges, blankets, and food were burned. Dogs were shot. Children inadvertently left behind in the confusion were chased down by the Winnebago scouts and killed.

____________________

Glossary:

Čháŋğu Wakpála: Burnt Wood Creek, Burleigh County, ND

Čhápa Wakpána: Beaver Creek, Emmons County, ND

Čhaŋte Matȟó: Bear’s Heart (The-Man-Who-Never-Walked), a forty-year-old disabled Lakȟóta man who fought his first and last fight at Taȟčá Wakútepi

Hé Núŋpa WaníčA: No Two Horns, a warrior, artist, and historian of the Huŋkphápȟa; fought at the Little Bighorn

Huŋkphápȟa: Head Of The Circle, also known as “Hunkpapa,” one of the seven Thítȟuŋwaŋ tribes

Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna: Little End Village (Yanktonai), one of the seven tribes that make up the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, their language is Wičhíyena

ĺŋkpaduta: Scarlet Point, war chief of the Waȟpékhute band of the Isáŋyathi

Isáŋyathi: the general name of the four eastern tribes (Sisíthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpékhute, and Bdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ), their language is Dakȟóta

Matȟó Watȟákpe: Charging Bear (John Grass), a war chief of the Sihásapa, one of the seven Thítȟuŋwaŋ tribes

Mníšoše: Water-Astir (Missouri River)

Očhéthi Šakówiŋ: Seven Council Fires (The Great Sioux Nation), the confederation is made up of the Thítȟuŋwaŋ, Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna, Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ, Sisíthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpékhute, and Bdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ

Ohítika Wiŋ: Brave Woman, she fought at Killdeer Mountain alongside her father when she was fourteen years old

Oyáte: a tribe, a people, or a nation

Pa ÍpuzA Napé Wakpána: Dry Bone Hill Creek (Whitestone Hill Creek), Dickey County, ND

Phizí: Gall, a war chief of the Huŋkphápȟa (Hunkpapa), one of the seven Thítȟuŋwaŋ tribes; led the Huŋkphápȟa at the Little Bighorn, later became a judge

Sihásapa: Black Sole Moccasins (Blackfeet) one of the seven Thítȟuŋwaŋ tribes

Šákpe: The Six, a chief of the Bdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ (Dwellers At The Sacred Lake), one of the four Isáŋyathi (Santee; Eastern Sioux) tribes.

Šiná Tȟó Wakpána: Blue Blanket Creek, Walworth County, SD

Šúŋka Waŋžíla: Dog Only-One (Lone Dog), a Huŋkphápȟa warrior and a Waníyetu Wowápi (Winter Count) keeper

Tačháŋȟpi Lúta: Red Tomahawk , a Huŋkphápȟa warrior known more for being a Bureau of Indian Affairs police officer and his role in the death of Sitting Bull.

Taȟčá Wakútepi: Where They Kill Deer (Killdeer Mountain), Dunn County, ND

Tȟaspáŋla Wakpála: Lit. Thorn-Apple Creek, Burleigh County, ND

Tȟatȟáŋka ĺyotake: Sitting Bull, a great leader of the Huŋkphápȟa

Tȟatȟáŋka Ská: White Bull, nephew of Sitting Bull, and a famous warrior

Thítȟuŋwaŋ: Dwellers On The Plains (Teton), the Thítȟuŋwaŋ is made up of the Huŋkphápȟa,Sihásapa, Mnikȟówožu, Itázipčho, Oglála, Oóhenuŋpa, and Sičháŋǧu, their language is Lakȟóta

Wakȟáŋ: With-Energy, often translated as “Holy” or “Sacred”

Wakhéye Ská: White Lodge, a chief of the Sisíthuŋwaŋ

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[1] “One Bull Interview,” Welch, Col. Alfred, Welch Dakota Papers.

[2] Mr. Corbin Shoots The Enemy (Húŋkpathi, Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna; Crow Creek Indian Reservation), in discussion with the author, September 2013.

[3] “John Grass Interview,” Welch, Col. Alfred, Welch Dakota Papers.

[4] Larson, R., Gall: Lakota War Chief (University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), 45.

[5] Waggoner, J., Witness: A Huŋkphápȟa Historian’s Strong-Heart Song of The Lakotas (University of Nebraska Press, 2013), 41.

[6] Ibid. pp. 599. Šiná Dúta Wiŋ (Red Blanket Woman) account places Šákpe and his band of Bdewákhaŋthuŋwaŋ at the Apple Creek conflict, and this fight.

[7] “Red Tomahawk Interview,” Welch, Col. Alfred, Welch Dakota Papers.

[8] Mrs. Delma Helman (Húŋkpapȟa, Thítȟuŋwaŋ; Standing Rock Indian Reservation), in discussion with the author, Mobridge, S.D., July 2013.

[9] Mr. Mike McDonald (Dakȟóta; Spirit Lake Oyate), in discussion with the author, Fort Yates, N.D., Nov. 2014.

[10] “No Two Horns [Hé Núŋpa WaníčA ] Interview,” Welch, Col. Alfred, Welch Dakota Papers, July 7, 1915.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Waggoner, J., Witness: A Huŋkphápȟa Historian’s Strong-Heart Song of The Lakotas (University of Nebraska Press, 2013), 599.

[13] Vestal, S. (Campbell, W.), Sitting Bull: Champion Of The Sioux (University of Oklahoma Press, 1957).

[14] Utley, R., The Lance And The Shield: The Life And Times Of Sitting Bull (Henry Holt And Company, 1993), 55.

[15] White Bull, box 105, notebook 24, pp. 1-6, Walter S. Campbell Collection, University of Oklahoma Library, Norman, OK.

[16] LaPointe, E., Sitting Bull: His Life And Legacy (Gibbs Smith, 2009), p. 49.

[17] White Bull, box 105, notebook 24, pp. 1-6, Walter S. Campbell Collection, University of Oklahoma Library, Norman, OK.

[18] Pattee, J., Dakota Campaigns (South Dakota Historical Collections 5, 1910), 308.

[19] “No Two Horns [Hé Núŋpa WaníčA ] Interview,” thípi with pictographic records, Welch, Col. Alfred, Welch Dakota Papers, July 7, 1915.

[20] Kelly, F., Narrative Of My Captivity Among The Sioux (Mutual Publishing Company, 1871), pp. 274-278.

[21] White Bull, box 105, notebook 24, pp. 1-6, Walter S. Campbell Collection, University of Oklahoma Library, Norman, OK.

[22] Mr. Tim Hunts In Winter (Húŋkpathi, Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna; Crow Creek Indian Reservation), in an e-dialog with the author, March 2014.

[23] Vestal, S., Sitting Bull: Champion Of The Sioux (University of Oklahoma Press, 1932), p53-54; White Bull, box 105, notebook 24, pp. 1-6, Walter S. Campbell Collection, University of Oklahoma Library, Norman, OK.

[24] Vestal, S. (Campbell, W.), New Sources Of Indian History (Gayley Press, 2008), p. 56.