Remarkable Places Around Cannonball, A Review

The cover to "Prologue To Lewis & Clark" features a 1795 map by Antoine Soulard. "There is probably no scholar more qualified to write on this subject than Wood," said James P. Ronda in his review. 

Prologue To Lewis And Clark

Remarkable Places Around Cannonball

A Book Review by Dakota Wind

Bismarck, ND – Wood’s book, “Prologue To Lewis And Clark: The Mackay And Evans Expedition,” is a wonderful combination of research and composition relating to the expedition almost ten years before the Corps of Discovery arrived on scene. The work isn’t loaded with archaeological narrative nor bogged down in the weight of its own revelation, but is carefully and deliberately written with the common reader in mind.

At five chapters and only 255 pages, Prologue is amazingly concise, and features maps by John Evans and Antoine Soulard, and maps of the explorations reconstructed by Wood’s own meticulous research.

Wood is Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at the University of Missouri, Columbia. He is an acknowledged expert of archaeology on the Missouri River by the State Historical Society of North Dakota and many other fine institutions, state, federal, and tribal, across the country. Wood has over fifty years of experience from before the federal dam projects of the 1950s to general field work at the Mandan Indian village Double Ditch in recent years.

Here’s a three paragraph (pp. 109-110) excerpt from Wood’s “Prologue To Lewis And Clark: The Mackay And Evans Expedition.”

Page 147 features sheet 5 of the Beinecke Library Map. 

Chapter Four

The Missouri River Basin Explored

“Those Remarkable Things Mentioned By Evans”

Between Beaver Creek and the Cannonball River, there is a sequence of small named and unnamed islands and tributary streams. [Wood is/was unaware of these streams having names in any of the native languages.] Evans called the Cannonball River the “Bomb River,” a name we also may presume to derive from his hypothesized companion. (In this instance, we may speculate on a French origin, for an Indian identification of the individual is improbable.) “Bomb” is an appropriate name, for the banks and valley of this stream once were home to uncounted spherical sandstone concretions that ranged from a few inches to several feet in diameter. Some of them indeed were the size of cannonballs. Today they have been carried away by curio hunters in such numbers that they are very rare.

The mouth of the Cannonball, which Evans said was 150 yards wide, marks the south end of a high, steep bluff that extends for four miles upriver along the west bank of the Missouri. It was here that William Clark “walked on Shore, in the evining with a view to See Some of those remarkable places mentioned by evens, none of which I could find.” Unfortunately, we cannot determine what those “remarkable places” might have been by looking at Evans’s narrative; if it was consulted by Clark, it is no longer available to us today. Nor are there clues to their identity in Clark’s subsequent notes, perhaps because he did not begin his search until he had passed the mouth of modern Badger Creek, thus being upstream from three locations on Evans’s map that modern viewers find so intriguing. But the map that Evans made of his voyage contains several clues to those “remarkable places.” The four-mile-long bluff above the Cannonball is called the “Hummit” (or “Hermitt”) on his chart – a term that so far defies explanation. Two features that he names on the rim of Humitt Bluff demonstrate that here he was following the river uplands on foot, for the features he notes would have been invisible from the river channel two hundred feet below its rim.

Page 111 from Wood's book features an aerial view of the mouth of the Cannonball River. Eagle eyed readers should be able to make out the curved fortification ditch in this image. Google Earth users can zoom in and view the area for themselves. 

One notation reads “Jupiter’s Fort,” which a hand-and-finger pointing to the north side of the Cannonball River atop the south end of Humitt Bluff. There is no doubt that this refers to a prehistoric Mandan village at that location overlooking the mouth of the Cannonball. Today, archaeologists call this village the North Cannonball site. Not only was it a defensive setting, but the village also was fortified by a curving ditch that isolated a lever upland spur from the adjoining upland. The village today is badly disturbed by plowing, but from the air one can clearly see the fortification ditch and the numerous bastions protruding from it. Little wonder that Evans referred to it as a fort, though his reference to Jupiter is not explainable.

In light of the current energy interests on the north side of the mouth of the Cannonball River, one might be inclined to review the historical properties that are about to be disturbed. Get your copy of W. Raymond Wood’s “Prologue To Lewis And Clark: The Mackay And EvansExpedition” today. Contact the North Dakota Heritage Center and Museum's Store at (701) 328-2822 for available copies. 

The Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count

The Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count (above) is housed at the Detroit Institute of Arts. It was created by an unknown artist at the beginning of the reservation era in North Dakota. Image courtesy of the Detroit Institute of Arts. 

Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna Dakȟóta Waníyetu Wówapi

The Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count Revisited

Edited by Dakota Wind

Fort Totten, N.D. – The Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count was acquired by Mr. Milford G. Chandler in the 1930s on the Spirit Lake Nation Reservation (formerly the Devils Lake Sioux Indian Reservation). The keeper of this winter count is unknown. This particular winter count contains events that relate mostly to the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna Dakȟóta (Yanktonai) and the Huŋkphápȟa Lakȟóta peoples from 1823 to 1919.

Today, the Spirit Lake Nation is made up of some Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ (Yankton) and Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna who were invited onto the reservation some years following the 1863 Sibley Punitive Campaign, but is mostly comprised of Sisíthuŋwaŋ (Sisseton), and Waȟpêthuŋwaŋ (Wahpeton) Dakȟóta people for whom the reservation was founded.

In 1998, Dr. Linea Sundstrom rendered an interpretation of the Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count for the St. Francis Indian Mission website. It is re-transcribed here as follows: the year, the first line of text is as it was recorded using Missionary Dakota, the Missionary Dakota re-written using the Lakota Language Consortium standard orthography, a word for word translation, a free translation, and then any additional information or commentary.

1823

Wahuwas·eca ih·anpi.
Wahúwas ečhá iȟápi.
Ear-Of-Corn deliberately to-bury-something-they.
They cached ears of corn.

This year’s event refers to the Arikara War of 1823, in which Colonel Leavenworth led the Missouri Legion (soldiers, artillery, and even the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna and Thítȟuŋwaŋ) in the first ever US punitive military campaign against a Plains Indian tribe, the Arikara.

About 700-750 of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ fought under Leavenworth’s command in this Missouri Legion. At the end of the campaign, when the Arikara were utterly defeated and chased out of their villages, their fields of corn were seized by the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ for their use[1].

1824 

Wah·pes·a conkas·ke kii.
Waȟpé Šá čhúŋkaške khí.
Leaf Red Fence/Fortification to-take-away-something-from-somebody.
Red Leaf took a fort.

Red Leaf, an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna chief, is mentioned in the Blue Thunder Winter Count in the entry for 1845 when he was injured in a fight with an Arikara.

1825 Miniwicata.
Mní wičhát’A.
Water many-died.
Many drowned.

This was at Horse Head Bottom, also known as Gayton’s Crossing[2].

They were camping on the bottomlands of the Mníšoše that spring when an unprecedented rise of water quickly drowned over one half of the people. They say that this happened on the east bank of the river, opposite of the mouth of the Cannonball River. The Dakȟóta call this place Étu Pȟá Šuŋg t’Á (Lit. Place Head Horse Dead; Dead Horse Head Point) because, following the flood, the shore was lined with dead horse heads. They had corralled their horses for the night and nearly all were drowned but for a few[3].

Howard’s interpretation of this event mentions that over one-half of the people drowned[4]. Howard’s informant, Mr. Pete Big eagle, places this event not in North Dakota, but instead at White Swan Creek located near present-day Pickstown, SD on the Yankton Indian Reservation[5].

1826

Tas·pan ojued wanitipi.
Tȟaspáŋ Ožú éd waníthipi.
Apple To-Plant-Something at winter-camp.
They established winter camp at Apple Orchard.

Apple Orchard, or Apple Creek is located around present-day Bismarck, ND area. The creek is known as Tȟaspáŋla Wakpála (Lit. “Little Apple Creek”) for the wild Hawthorn trees. The fruit, or thornapple, are called tȟaspáŋla, which means “little apple.”

The Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna returned to Tȟaspáŋ Ožú time and again. It was a favorite place to winter, specifically mentioned in 1777, 1826, and 1861 for that purpose[6].

1827 

Isanyati akikantapi.
Isáŋyathi akíȟ’aŋt’api.
Santee to-die-of-starvation-them.
Many of the Eastern Dakota died of starvation.

1828 

Kiyahiyaze istasapi kici kicio.
Khiyé ahí yazé istášapi kičhí kíčio
Near to-come-here to-pull-with-the-teeth arm-red-they with to-shoot-and-hit-something-for-someone.
Someone close came, fought hand-to-hand, was wounded, and shot.

The pictograph for this year indicates that the wounded one’s name is possibly Ziŋtkála SápA (Lit. “Black Bird”), as evidenced by a rather plain black bird flying above him. The Mnikȟówožu winter counts Bush, Lone Dog, and Swan, along with the Sa’úŋ (northern Thítȟuŋwaŋ - Teton - Lakȟóta, in this case, the Itázipčho and Oóhenuŋpa) winter count kept by The Flame, all refer to a fight this year involving a man named Dead Arm who was stabbed in the arm by a Mandan Indian.

1829 

Kanpi kicitipi.
Kánapi kičhí thípi.
Way-over-there-them with reside-there-they.
They camped with them way over there.

The traditional territory of the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ (Yankton) and Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna (Yanktonai) lay between the Mníšoše (The Water-Astir; “Missouri River”) and the Čhaŋsáŋsaŋ Wakpá (White Birch River; “James River”) in present day North Dakota and South Dakota. The Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna dwelt north of the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ. Their northern most territory boundary lay from the mouth of the Čháŋté Wakpá (Heart River) and Mní Wakȟáŋ (Spirit Lake).

The image suggests that the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna travelled far to trade with a trader (the cabin) and wintered there with him (the thípi next to the cabin).

The Mnikȟówožu were living along the Wakpá Wašté (Good River; “Cheyenne River”) at this time. The Mnikȟówožu winter counts by Lone Dog and Thin Elk recall the arrival of the trader F.A. Chardon. Chardon established a trade post on what became known as Makȟóthi Wakpála (Earthlodge Creek) at Pahá Čhaŋ Igná YaŋkÁ (Hill In The Woods) along Makhízita Wakpá (Lit. “White Dirt River;” White River)[7]. Today, Makȟóthi Wakpála is known as Makȟásaŋ Wakpála (Lit. “Creamy-White-Earth Creek;” Whiteclay Creek).

The location of Chardon’s trading post lay between the historic territories of the Mnikȟówožu and Oóhenuŋpa Lakȟóta peoples. The site of the trading post lay within the borders of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation.

1830

Hewatamahica wicaktepi.
Ȟewák tȟamáheča wičáktepi.
Arikara [Ȟewák being a contraction of Ȟewáktotka] lean/skinny/poor men-killed-they.
They killed some poor Arikara.

According to the Blue Thunder Winter Counts and the White Bull Winter Count the Dakȟóta fought against the Arikara; the Arikara killed eight of the Dakȟóta in the fight.

1831

Wicasa num kiciktepi.
Wičháša núm kičhí ktépi.
Man two with killed-they.
Two men killed each other.

The pictograph for this year depicts two ikčéya wičháša, two common men, indicating that it was two Dakȟóta men who were killed this year.

1832 

Titankaobdica.
Thí tȟáŋka obdéča.
Lodge big square-sides.
A big cabin.

The High Dog Winter Count recalls the year as Thí tȟáŋka obléča káğapi (Lodge big square-sides built-they), that they built a large cabin that year. It was the first time a log cabin was built by a Lakȟóta.

1833 

Wicahpi hinhpaya.
Wičháȟpi hiŋȟpáya.
Nation-star to-fall-down.
The stars fell down.

Beede’s informants told him the Lakȟóta feared that Wakȟáŋ Tȟáŋka (the Great Mystery) had lost control over creation[8].

1834

Mato wan kiciwanitipi.
Matȟó waŋ kičhí waníthipi.
Bear a with winter-camp.
They wintered with a bear.

Blue Thunder and No Two Horns say that the Dakȟóta camped with a bear that winter at Čháŋté Wakpá (Heart River).


1835

Iktonwanotawica kasatapi.
Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna wičhákasotapi.
Yanktonai massacre-they.
Many Yanktonai were killed [in battle].

There was a battle between the Wazíkhute (Lit. “Pine-Shooters”) band of Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna against a war party of Pȟadáni (Arikara) and Miwátani (Mandan).

The depiction of the Hupáwaheyuŋpi (Lit. “Poles Pack-things-up-to-travel”) indicates that this wasn’t a hunting expedition, but perhaps an envoy including women and even children, non-combatants, on their way to the next camp or perhaps on their way to trade or treat with another tribe.

The Cranbrook Winter Count, a Huŋkphápȟa winter count, recalls this year as the massacre of a Lakȟóta peace party. The High Dog Winter Count, generally a Huŋkphápȟa winter count but also includes Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna information, has that the dead Lakȟóta peace party members were brought back on travois. The Blue Thunder Winter Count says that twelve Dakȟóta died in this conflict. The Butterfly Winter Count, a Mandan winter count, recalls the the deaths of thirty Dakȟóta though they probably counted the ones they wounded in battle as dead.

1836

S·aketepa wokiye wicatipi.
Šaké Tópa wókhiye wičháktepi.
Hoof Four to-make-peace men-killed-they.
They killed Four Hoof a member of a peace delegation.

Only Four Hoof is identified of the two figures depicted in this year’s entry. It is possible that this year’s entry is related to the previous year in that it involved a peace delegation with either the Arikara, Mandan, and/or the Hidatsa.

1837

Wicah·anh·an tanka.
Wičáȟaŋȟaŋ tȟáŋka.
Smallpox big.
There was an epidemic of smallpox.

There was an epidemic of smallpox which struck the Upper Missouri River in 1837. It was most deadly among the sedentary tribes like the Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan. Nomadic tribes like the Thítȟuŋwaŋ (Lit. “Dwellers-On-The-Plains;” Teton) were not as heavily affected by the disease.

The steamboat, S.S. Saint Peter, knowingly spread the smallpox threat to all the people it came into contact, particularly the native people who had little immunity to this deadly disease. By summer’s end, all the tribes living in the Missouri River basin or nearby were affected[9].

1838

Akiwicah·anh·an.
Akhé wičáȟaŋȟaŋ.
Again smallpox.
Smallpox again.

The Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna winter count by Roan Bear details that many people died from pȟózaŋ (lit. “Head-Sickness”). It is possible that this year’s entry recalls hemorrhagic smallpox, of which the first stage includes headache, fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, and severe muscle aches[10].

1839

Maza is·taya wanktepi.
Máza Ištáya waŋ ktépi.
Iron Eyes-In-A-State-Of the killed-they.
They killed Iron Eyes (lit. “Glasses”).

This was the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna chief otherwise known as Waáŋataŋ (lit. “He-Rushes-To-Attack;” The Charger) who was assassinated by one of his own people. He has fought in the War of 1812 as a young man, where he acquired the name “The Charger[11].” Towards the end of his life he favored wearing non-native attire, and even took to wearing green spectacles, from which his new name, “Iron Eyes,” was derived[12]. He died in the winter camp of the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna along Čhápa Wakpá (lit. “Beaver Creek”) in present-day Emmons County, N.D[13].

1840

Tamina wewe ktepi.
Tȟámina Wéwe ktépi.
His-Knife Blood-blood killed-they.
They killed His Bloody Knife.

This year refers to the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ chief His Bloody Knife, not the Huŋkphápȟa-Pȟadáni mixed blood Bloody Knife who served in the Fort McKeen Detachment of U.S. Indian Scouts at Fort Abraham Lincoln, and who died in the Reno Fight of the Little Bighorn.

The John K. Bear Winter Count details the victorious return of His Bloody Knife[14].

Blue Thunder says: Tȟámina Wé iwáktekdi kiŋ, Pȟadáni (His-Knife Blood returned-with-war-honors the, Arikara). His Bloody Knife returned with war honors against the Arikara. This was at the mouth of the Íŋyaŋwakağapi Wakpá (Stone-Make-For-Themselves River), or Cannonball River[15].

1841

Wicas·a itancan wan ktepi.
Wičháša itȟáŋčhaŋ waŋ ktépi.
Man chief in-particular killed-they.
They killed a chief.

The High Dog Winter Count refers to the death of a Hóhe (Assiniboine) this year named Ošpúla[16] (lit. “Cuttings,” or “Leavings”).

1842

Wakeya hdezena oti wankan.
Wakhéya kdézena othí wakȟáŋ.
Lodge striped to-dwell-within with-energy.
Dwelling within a sacred striped.

The Blue Thunder Winter Count calls this year: Tȟatȟáŋka Oyé Wakȟáŋ t’Á. Wakhéya kdézena uŋ wičháknakapi. (Bison-Bull Tracks With-Energy died. Lodge striped using above-the-ground [buried]-they). Holy Buffalo Tracks dies. They laid him to rest in a striped thípi[17].

1843

Wasicun maza wadowan.
Wašíčuŋ máza wadówaŋ.
Takes-The-Fat Metal to-sing-over-someone.
Iron White Man was sung over.

The alówaŋ, or alówaŋpi, is a ceremony involving singing over individual/s and ascribing status to him/her/them. Some people are sung over, honored, for deeds which have benefited the community. A person might be sung over and formally adopted by a family.

1844

Winyan was anog·uta.
Wíŋyaŋ waŋ oná ğú t’A.
Woman in-particular prairie-fire burned died.
A woman died died of burns from a prairie fire.

The Medicine Bear Winter Counts entry for this year recalls the same incident: Wíŋyaŋ onákte (woman prairie-fire-killed). A woman died in a prairie fire[18].

1845 

Hunkawoqinyuta.
Huŋká wóniŋ yútA.
An-adopted-person sang to-eat-something.
A beggar was adopted and fed.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count entry for this year says: Huŋkádowaŋpi (Singing-over-a-relative-they). They sang over someone in ceremony and made a relative[19].

The High Dog entry for 1846 says: Tabú’bu alówaŋpi (Something-Large-And-Unknown sang-over-someone-they). They sang in honor over a man they called Something Large. This one man, entirely alone, defended the staff, the Lakȟóta flag, against great odds in combat against the Crow[20].

Rev. Eugene Beuchel’s “Lakota English Dictionary” translates Tabú’bu as “something large and big that no one ever saw,” but also describes this particular word as when children pile robes on another child so that the one child becomes something big. It may be this last that describes this one man’s battle the Crow, against great odds that none could describe, and he came out victorious[21].

James H. Howard interprets Tabú’bu as “Humpback,” and the pictograph to represent Huŋkálowaŋpi (Adopted-person-singing-over-they), in which the quirt behind one figure is taking the other figure as his relative[22].

The pictograph for this entry seems to support that this man who was adopted was indeed hunch backed. The Cranbrook Winter Count (Huŋkphápȟa) notes an adopted man was also known as His Horse Runs[23].

1846

S·unkakan hih·dokapi.
Šuŋk’ákaŋ hiŋkdókapi.
On-horseback to-suddenly-happen-as-it-were-they.
A rider unexpectedly brought horses to them.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count entry for this year says: Šuŋg’híŋzi áwičakdipi (Horse-teeth-yellow captured-return-they). They brought back horses with yellow teeth[24].

The pictograph depicts a black horse with a white face.

1847

Was·icun num wopeton yankapi.
Wašíčuŋ núm wópȟetȟuŋ yaŋkápi.
Take-the-fat two to-buy-things to-sit-they.
Two white traders sat [camped] with them.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count entry for this year says: Wašíču nuŋpá kičhí waníthi (Takes-The-Fat two with winter-camp). Two white traders camped with them that winter[25].

Blue Thunder says: Ȟaŋtéčhaŋ Wakpá na Píğa Wakpá ožáte éd waníthipi. Wašíču wiínaȟbe kičhí waníthi. (Cedar Creek and Boiling Creek forks at winter-camp-they. Takes-The-Fat seducer-of-women with winter-camp). They established winter camp where the Cedar River and Boiling River converge. A white man, a seducer of women, camped that winter with them[26].

1848

Odowan wanji kicikici kte.
Odówaŋ waŋží kičhíkičhi kté.
Song One to-one-another killed.
One Song and another killed each other.

Medicine Bear says: Kičhí ktépi (Each-other killed-they). They killed each other[27].

Blue Thunder says: Pȟadáni na Wičhíyena kičhí čhapȟápi (Arikara and Wičhíyena with stabbed-they). An Arikara and an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna stabbed each other[28].

The pictograph for this entry shows men with rifles, not knives.

1849

Titanka osniyata.
Thí tȟáŋka osníyata.
Lodge big cold-at/in-[the].
A big cabin when it was cold.

Medicine Bear says: WatȟókhiyopȟeyA čhúŋkaške éd waníthipi (To-Trade fort at winter-camp). They wintered at a trading post[29].

Blue Thunder says: Wakíŋyaŋ Yuhá, Wičhíyena, čhaŋkȟáğathipi mahé t’Á (Thunder Has, Wičhíyena, wood-cut-lodge inside died). Has Thunder, an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna, died in a log cabin[30].

1850

Witkonasa was·icun wan kte.
Witkó NasÁ wašíčuŋ waŋ kté.
Crazy To-chase-large-game-in-a-communal-hunt take-the-fat a killed.
Crazy Chase Hunter killed a white man.

Blue Thunder says: Wópȟetȟuŋ waŋ Wičhíyena ópi. Matȟó Núŋpa thíŋktes’a t’eyÁ (Trader a Wičhíyena wound. Bear Two murderer-would-be caused-to-die). An Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna stabbed a trader. Two Bear puts the would-be murderer to death. This happened at a camp below present-day Mandan, ND[31].

No Two Horns says: a Dakȟóta man shot/killed a white man with an arrow[32].

The entry for this year depicts a Dakȟóta shooting a trader [figure with a hat] in the back with his bow and arrow.

1851

Heh·aka duta kici wanitipi.
Heȟáka dúta kičhí waníthipi.
Bull-Elk Red with winter-camp.
Red Elk wintered with them.

Blue Thunder says that Red Elk was an Arikara. This was at Mní Nažúŋspe KawéğA (lit. “Water Axe Broken”), Broke Axe Lake, an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna campsite located near present-day Washburn, ND[33].

Broke Axe Lake is what is commonly known as an “oxbow lake,” a former channel of the Missouri River. The name fell out of disuse and the site is now known as Painted Woods, whose name is derived from a tragic love story between a Mandan maiden and an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna brave[34].

1852

Matowas·te pte hiko.
Matȟó Wašté ptehíko.
Bear Good bison-to-attract.
Good Bear called the bison. 

Medicine Bear says: Matȟó Wašté ečíyapi ptehíko (Bear Good called-them-by-name bison-to-attract). Good Bear called the bison[35].

Blue Thunder’s entry for this year simply says: Psaóhaŋpi (Snowshoes). Blue Thunder and the variants say that they wintered at a site east of Fort Berthold, a place called either “Corn Hill” or “Cave Hill.” They also hunted many bison that winter[36]. Many winter counts recite a hard or difficult winter.

Another possible name of this site is a “coal hill,” where small strip mines later removed the deposit, which is about six miles east of old Fort Berthold, nearly halfway between old Fort Berthold and Fort Stevenson[37].

1853 Hetopa wan ktepi.
Hé Tópa waŋ ktépi
Horn Four the killed-they.
They killed Four Horns.

Blue Thunder says: Hé tópa uŋ waŋ ktépi (Horn/s Four wearing a killed-they). They killed a man wearing a headdress with four horns. According to Blue Thunder, a lone Crow warrior wearing a four-horned headdress charged into a Lakȟóta war party and died a glorious death at Čhaȟlí Wakpá. Afterward, all the warriors who had participated in this fight took to wearing four-horned headdresses in memory of the Crow’s bravery and his last fight[38].

1854

Osnikicizapi.
Osní kičhízapi.
Cold battle-they.
They had a battle that winter.

Medicine Bear says: Waníyetu kičhízapi (Winter fight-they). They had a fight that winter[39].

Blue Thunder says: Wičhíyena Hóhe ób kičhízapi kiŋ. Makȟá Sáŋ Wakpá éd. WahíŋtkA ktépi. (Wičhíyena Assiniboine with fight-they the. Earth Creamy-White River at. Scraper killed-they). The Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna fought with the Assiniboine. They were at White Earth River. They killed Scraper. Blue Thunder further says that this was at Fort Berthold[40].

1855

Putihinska waaks·ija.
Phuthíŋ Ská waáŋkičiya.
Beard White cared-for-with-them.
They took care of White Beard.

High Dog says: This was Gen. Harney who went to make peace with the Oóhenuŋpa (Two Kettle), Húŋkpathi (Lower Yankton), Huŋkphápȟa, Sihásapa (Black-Soled Moccasins; Blackfeet Lakȟóta), Mnikȟówožu (Planters By The Stream), Itázipčho (Without-Bows; Sans Arc), Iháŋktȟuŋwanŋa, and Sičháŋğu (Burnt-Thigh; Brule), in March, 1856, so that settlers on the Oregon Trail might pass by unperturbed[41].

Medicine Bear says: Phuthíŋ Ská wawáhoye kiŋ (Beard White to-order-things the). White Beard [General William Harney] gave the order[42].

Blue Thunder says: Phuthíŋ Ská wawáhoye kiŋ (Beard White to-order-things the). White Beard [General William Harney] gave the order. They were at Čhúŋaške (Fort Pierre) that winter. White Beard called a council and treated with them. They wintered with him[43].

1856

Kangi wicas·an wan wapaha aykusapi.
Kȟaŋğí wičháša waŋ wapȟáha ayúk’ezapi.
Crow man/men the warbonnet on-something-to-shear-off-they.
They sheared a Crow man’s warbonnet [off his head].

The High Dog Winter Count says that it was Good Bear who tore a shaved horn warbonnet from the Crow[44].

The Cranbrook Winter Count says that a war party of about 100 went into Crow territory to steal horses. The Crow spotted them, followed, and overtook them, forcing the Huŋkphápȟa into a fight. In one of the charges, a Lakȟóta grabbed a Crow’s warbonnet by its long tail. The warbonnet came apart in his hands[45].

1857

Tatanka Iyotanke wayaka akdipi.
Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake wayáka akdípi.
Bison-Bull Sitting-Down prisoner return-they.
Sitting Bull and his war party returned with a prisoner.

Blue Thunder says: Wičhíyena Hóhe ób kičhízapi kiŋ. Mníyaye Zí ktépi (Wičhíyena Assiniboine with fight-they the. Water-carrier Yellow killed-they). The Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna fought with the Assiniboine. They killed Yellow Water-Carrier[46].

High Dog says: Áta ktépi aglípi (Entire killed-they returned-they). They returned having killed all of them. The pictograph indicates that they killed the entire enemy war party, and counted coup three times[47].

Medicine Bear says: Tȟatȟáŋka Ináži wiŋyáŋ áwičakdi (Bison-[Bull] Standing woman captured-returned-with). Standing Bull brought back a captive woman[48].

The Cranbrook Winter Count says that a little enemy boy was killed. Praus’ notes on the Cranbrook Winter Count says that this year’s event refers to a raid on an Assiniboine camp where Sitting Bull and his war party killed an entire family, all but one, who was captured and later adopted by Sitting Bull. Sitting Bull gave his misúŋkala (younger brother) the name Tȟatȟáŋka PsíčA (lit. “Bison-Bull To-Jump;” Jumping Bull). Jumping Bull died in Sitting Bull’s camp on the Grand River in the fight against the BIA police when they came to arrest his čhiyé (older brother), December 1890[49].

1858

Wanbdihoh·pita.
Waŋbdí Hoȟpí t’Á.
Eagle Nest died.
Eagle Nest died.

Blue Thunder says Eagle Nest died of no sickness[50].

1859

Was·na ota.
Wasná óta.
Pemmican to-be-much.
There was much pemmican.

Medicine Bear says: Wókapȟaŋ paŋȟya (lit. “meat-block very-much”). There was very much meat prepared[51].

This year’s entry is depicted by a lodge, representing camp, with four thick lines on the side, representing representing wókapȟaŋ (meat blocks) or wakápȟapi (pounded meat). 

1860

Canhuta oqapi.
Čhaŋhúta Očhápi.
Stump into-dig-up-as-by-stabbing.
Dug Up A stump.

Medicine Bear says: Šuŋkawakȟaŋ óta áwičakdipi (lit. “Horses many captured-returned-with”). They returned with many captured horses[52].

High Dog says: Kaȟníȟniȟ siŋtéyapi (Choose-selectively tail-to-have-for-they). They carefully chose a [horse] tail for themselves[53]. Ten race horses were killed. A tail was carefully selected and a Tȟáwa Šúŋkawakȟaŋ Ópi Wokíksuye, or Horse Memorial Stick (commonly called “Horse Sticks) was created[54].

The Cranbrook Winter Count and the Mnikȟówožu Winter Count (White Bull) say that choice horses were killed. Praus’ notes in the Cranbrook Winter Count says that the best horse of Kȟaŋğí YatáŋpikA (lit. “Crow One-Who-Is-Highly-Praised”), or Crow King (a Huŋkphápȟa chief), was killed by an arrow. Overnight, all the best horses in camp were killed and the group scattered[55].

This year’s entry is depicted by eight horse tracks that seemingly has nothing to do with the accompanying text for the same year. The interpretation for this year would seem to be that it was ‘Stump’s horses that were killed. Perhaps it was later realized that it was ‘Stump who killed Crow King’s horse, which set off a retaliation.

1861

Itonkasanduta.
Hitȟúŋkasaŋ Dúta.
Weasel Red.
Red Weasel.

Medicine Bear says: Hitȟúŋkasaŋ Dúta šuŋkawakȟaŋ óta áwičakdi aktá (Weasel Red horses many captured-returned-with again). Red Weasel returned with many captured horses[56].

High Dog says: Itȟúŋkasaŋ Lúta ktépi (Weasel Red killed-they). They killed Red Weasel[57].

1862

Tiyokicizapi.
Thí okíčhizapi.
Lodge in/at-fight-they.
They fought at a house.

This year’s entry is depicted with a house or cabin. This year could refer to the fight that set off the 1862 Dakota Conflict in Minnesota when four young Dakȟóta men killed five settlers, or to the fight at the Lower Sioux Agency where the Dakȟóta raided the agency headquarters and killed the agent. No fight is actually depicted, only mentioned in the Mission Dakota text accompanying the pictograph.

The Wind-Roan Bear Winter Count refers to the Isáŋyathi, Santee or Dakȟóta, in a fight with the whites[58].

1863

Nasunatankata.
Nasúna Tȟáŋka t’Á.
Brain Big died.
Big “Head” Died.

Blue Thunder and Medicine Bear both say: Akíčhita Pȟá Tȟáŋka kaškápi. Kdí na t’Á (Soldier/s Head Big imprisoned. Return and die). Soldiers imprisoned Big Head. He returned and died[59].

No Two Horns refers to this individual as Nasúna Tȟáŋka, Big Brain, and not as Pȟá Tȟáŋka[60].

Wind-Roan Bear Winter Count refers to the Dakȟóta as captives in military forts. No forts are named, but this clearly refers to the imprisonment of the Isáŋyathi at Fort Snelling, MN, this year[61].

1864

Winyan num wicaktepi.
Wíŋyaŋ núm wičáktepi.
Woman two them-killed-they.
They killed two women.

Medicine Bear says: Wíŋyaŋ nuŋpá ktépi (Woman two killed-they). They killed two women[62].

These two women referred to in this year’s entry are quite possibly the white women who were taken captive during the 1863-64 Dakota Conflict in Dakota Territory punitive campaigns. One was Mrs. Eubanks, who was rescued by the Oglála Two Face and brought to Fort Laramie - her rescuer was hung; the other was Mrs. Kelly.

High Dog says: Wayáka wiyáŋ iyópȟeyapi (Captive woman exchange-for-they). They exchanged a captive woman in trade[63]. She was stolen from the Oglála by Brings Plenty, a Sihásapa who tried to arrange a trade for her, and he made her his wife. Kelly was given the name “Real Woman.” She eventually regained her freedom either by tricking her Lakȟóta captors into bringing her to Fort Sully (present-day Pierre, SD), or she was was escorted to Fort Sully by a Huŋkphápȟa man under the protection of Sitting Bull[64].

It would appear that the text accompanying the pictograph is in error. It is not. In the cultural context of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (The Seven Council Fires; “Great Sioux Nation”), when a women was stolen she was considered dead, whether literally or metaphorically, she died to her people. If she was stolen and was married into an enemy’s tribe, she might not ever be seen again. If a woman died in an enemy raid, she died. In either case, she was mourned and life resumed without her.

1865 Kepacapapi.
Khepȟá Čhapȟáp.
Turtle-Head Western-Painted-Turtle-them.
Western Painted Turtle Heads.

Medicine Bear[65], Blue Thunder (the British Museum variant)[66], and No Two Horns[67] say: Pȟatkáša Pȟá čhapȟÁ t’ekíyA (Jugular-vein-scarlet Head Western-Painted-Turtle stab to-cause-one’s-own-death). Blue Thunder adds that Turtle Head was stabbed to death at Kaȟmíčhiŋka (lit. “Bends-Back-On-Itself;” Big Bend), located at Big Bend, S.D. He was an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna.

1866

Ohunkakan ktepi.
Ohúŋkakaŋ ktépi.
Long-Ago-Story killed-they.
They killed Myth.

Medicine Bear says: Wóoyake Wičháša ktépi (Story Man killed-they). They killed Storyteller[68].

1867

Cahsu.
Čhaȟsú.
Little-ice-drop.
Sleet.

Medicine Bear says: Waníyetu osní (Winter cold). It was a cold dark winter[69].

Blue Thunder and No Two Horns say: Čháŋ Ičú čhiŋkšítku núŋpapi čhuwíta t’ápi. Waníyetu osní. (Wood Takes son/s two-they to-be-cold died-they. Winter cold.) He Takes Wood and his two sons froze to death. The winter was cold[70].

The Mnikȟówožu Winter Count (White Bull) says the winter was icy. A heavy snow fell, followed by a week’s thaw, then a freeze. The landscape was covered with ice[71].

The Drifting Goose Winter Count (the John K. Bear Winter Count) says: Bdé Haŋská éd wonáseta akíčhita waŋ čhuwíta t’Á (Water Long at bison-hunting soldier a to-be-cold died). A soldier froze to death on a bison hunt at Long Lake[72].

This year’s entry is depicted by a blackened circle. The blackened circle can represent death, night, or winter. Some winter counts have used the same device to represent instead a full solar eclipse that happened in August, 1869. It was visible across the Northern Plains.

The New Lakota Dictionary lists two entries for an eclipse: Aháŋzi (lit. “Shadow”), and Aóhaŋziya (lit. “To-Cast-A-Shadow-Upon”)[73]. Mr. Warren Horse Looking (Oglála), referred to the solar eclipse as: Aŋpétuwi Tokȟáȟ’aŋ (lit. “Day-Luminary To-Disappear”). The Huŋkphápȟa refer to the eclipse as: Maȟphíya Yapȟéta (lit. “Cloud/Sky/Heaven On-Fire”). Mr. John Eagle (Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate) refers to the eclipse as: Wí’Atá (lit. “Luminary All-Of-It”). Ms. Leslie Mountain (Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate) refers to the eclipse as: Khaphéya (lit. “Of-A-Singular-Appearance”). An unnamed informant from Spirit Lake refers to the eclipse as: Wí’te (lit. “New Moon”)[74].

Many winter counts depict the eclipse as a blackened circle, sometimes including two stars. In those many other winter counts, in the Lakȟóta language, they refer to the eclipse as Wí’kte (lit. “Luminary killed”).

1868

Akezaptan wicaktepi.
Akézaptaŋ wičáktepi.
Again-Five them-killed-they.
They killed fifteen of them.

Medicine Bear and High Dog say: Itázipčho akézaptaŋ t’Á (Without-Bows fifteen died). Fifteen members of the Itázipčho (Sans Arc) died[75].

High Dog says it was fifteen Crow who were killed at Waŋhíŋkpe Wakpá (lit. “Arrow River”), presently called O’Fallon Creek, located in Montana[76].

The Cranbook Winter Count says that fifteen Lakȟóta were killed[77].

Vestal’s notes on the Mnikȟówožu Winter Count (White Bull) offer a fuller picture. A Thítȟuŋwaŋ war party of as many as thirty, mostly Itázipčho, went to fight the Kaŋğí. When they encountered a Crow camp the mounted warriors closed in as those on foot prepared log breastworks, but they were discovered and routed. Those on foot perished, while those on horseback survived[78].

1869

Kangi wicas·a 30 wicaktepi.
Kȟaŋğí wičháša wikčémna yámni wičháktepi.
Crow men ten three men-killed-they.
They fought and killed thirty Crow men.

High Dog[79], Cranbrook[80], Iron Hawk[81], Lone Dog[82], Swan[83], and the Mnikȟówožu Winter Count (White Bull), say the same. The Mnikȟówožu Winter Count (White Bull) says this happened at HéčhiŋškA Pahá (lit. “Bison-Horn-Spoon Butte;” Spoonhorn Butte), presently known as Mountain Sheep Butte, located in Montana[84].

1870

Tatankawitko wonase ta.
Tȟatȟáŋka Witkó wónase t’Á.
Bison-Bull Foolish/Crazy bison-hunt died.
Fool Bull died in a bison hunt.

Medicine Bear says: Tȟatȟáŋka Witkó t’Á (Bison-Bull Crazy died). Crazy Bull died[85].

1871

Wikos·ke num tapi.
Wikȟóške núm t’ápi.
Young-woman two died-they.
Two young women died.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count appears to be the only winter count that provides further insight regarding this year’s entry. It says: Witkówiŋ nuŋpá ktépi (Crazy-women two killed-they). They killed two prostitutes[86].

The Cranbrook Winter Count recalls that Shell Necklace killed a woman, but the motive is not revealed[87].

An unfaithful man might find his belongings outside the lodge; an unfaithful women might find herself set upon a horse and sent back to her parents. Generally, the punishment for infidelity was disfigurement. A woman or man might draw a knife through the others’ nostril, perhaps even cutting the nose off as well.

The death of two women, who are vaguely remembered on this year’s entry, and remembered as prostitutes on another probably served as a minder to all Očhéthi Šakówiŋ women that they were keepers of the nation and such behavior would not be tolerated.

1872

Wis ·aya oti ta.
Wíšaya Othí t’Á.
Dyed-Red To-Dwell-There died.
Red Lodge died.

Medicine Bear says: Wakhéya Šáya t’Á (Lodge Red-Painted died). Red Painted Lodge died[88].

1873

Is·kona tawa ewicayayapi.
Iškóna[ǧi] tȟáwa ewíčhayayapi.
Black-spot-inside-horse’s-hoof his/theirs there-with-happened-they.
They happened to find horses with black spotted hooves.

Medicine Bear says: Šuŋkawakȟaŋ nuŋpá áwičakdipi (Horses two captured-returned-with). They returned with two captured horses[89].

1874

Zaptan ahiwicaktepi.
Záptaŋ ahí wičháktepi.
Five came-here them-killed-they.
They killed five [of the enemy] who came.

Medicine Bear says: Wičháša zaptáŋ ahí ktépi (Men five came-here killed-they). They killed five of them who came[90].

This year’s entry depicts five common figures, some with a reddish hue, but this indicates that it was five of the Dakȟóta or Lakȟóta who were killed and not the enemy. The enemy is not identified. Other winter counts this year indicate conflict with the Crow in Čhaȟlí Wakpá Makȟóčhe (lit. “Coal/charcoal River Country”), or Powder River country, in Montana.

1875

Toka kinuwanpi.
Tȟóka khí nuŋwáŋpi.
Enemy stole/steal-something swim-they.
The enemies stole something then swam [away].

Medicine Bear says: Tȟóka nuŋwaŋki napá (enemy swim-home escape). The enemy escaped by swimming home[91].

Blue Thunder says: Šuŋk’akaŋyaŋkapi akíčhita tȟašúŋkawakȟaŋpi oyás’iŋ waíč’iyápi (Horse-riding-they soldiers horses-belonging-to-them all-of-a-kind to-take-things-they). The cavalry took all their horses[92].

Some of the Oglála winter counts recall 1875-76 as the year the soldiers confiscated the agency Indians’ horses in retaliation for the failed Centennial Campaign that ended in General Custer’s defeat at Pȟežísla Wakpá Okíčhize (lit. Grass-Greasy River Fight), the Battle of the Little Bighorn.

This year’s entry depicts what appears to be four Crow who made off with nine horses.

1876

Hehaka ta.
Heȟáka t’Á.
Bull-Elk died.
Elk died.

Medicine Bear says: Heȟáka t’Á (Elk died). Elk died[93].

1877

Was·ni waniyetu.
Wá šni waníyetu.
Snow-on-the-ground no year/winter.
There was no snow this winter.

Medicine Bear says: Waníyetu snižé (Winter withering). A withering winter[94].

This year’s entry is depicted with what appears to be an earthlodge. A heavy arch is drawn on the outside of the lodge, which doesn’t represent snow, but an intact earthlodge. No maintenance was needed to be done on the outside of the earthlodge because there was no snow. Typically, there is a lot of regular maintenance, or patching of the earth (sometimes clay) on the earthlodge after the snow melts, and especially after a rain.

1878

Tas·unkemaza ktepi.
Tȟašúŋke Máza ktépi.
Horse Metal killed-they.
They killed Iron Horse.

This incident is also recorded in the Medicine Bear Winter Count[95].

Nearly all the remaining pictographs that indicate a permanent sedentary lifestyle, as demonstrated with the depictions of fort palisades and/or cabins from this year’s entry up until 1911.

1879

Wapahasapa tawa ewicayayapi.
Wapȟáha SápA tȟáwa ewíčhayayapi.
Warbonnet Black his/theirs there-with-happened-they.
Black Warbonnet was there with them.

Medicine Bear says: Wapȟáha Sápa šuŋkawakȟaŋ óta áwičakdi (Warbonnet Black horse many captured-returned-with). Black Warbonnet led a successful horse raid[96].

This year’s entry depicts a warbonnet above a fort/cabin.

1880

Titonwan ouwicatapi.
Thítȟuŋwaŋ oúŋ wičhát’Api.
Teton state-of-living dead-they.
The Teton were in a state of deadness.

The Huŋkphápȟa returned from Canada in a couple of movements. Some returned with Phizí, or Gall, and surrendered at Fort Buford, others with Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake surrenderd a few months later[97].

The Huŋkphápȟa can be found today at Wood Mountain in Canada (those who stayed behind), Fort Peck, MT, and on Standing Rock, in ND & SD.

The Medicine Bear[98] and High Dog winter counts both say: Phizí thí (Gall lodge). Gall lodge. Rev. Aaron Beede notes that this year soldiers had fired into Gall’s camp on the Tȟačhéži Wakpá (Bison-Tongue River), Tongue River[99].

This year’s entry is depicted with three lodges within the confines of a fort/cabin.

1881

Wakinyan nupa ktepi.
Wakíŋyaŋ núŋpa ktépi.
Thunder two killed-they.
They killed Two Thunder.

Medicine Bear says: Wakíŋyaŋ Nuŋpá ktépi (Thunder Two killed-they). They killed Two Thunder[100].

This year’s entry is depicted by two Thunderbirds above a fort/cabin.

1882

Joe hoks·ina s·ahiya owicauspa.
Joe Hokšína Šahíya owíčha yušpÁ.
Joe Cree Boy some-men to-break-off-a-piece-with-the-hands.
Joe Cree Boy met with some [Crow] men and they traded.

Joe Cree Boy may be a reference to Joseph Picotte, a French-Canadian trader, a trade partner of Charles Primeau. Both men had Dakȟóta-Lakȟóta wives at Standing Rock[101].

The Cranbrook Winter Count says that three Crows came to Standing Rock on a mission of peace[102].

Medicine Bear and High Dog say: Kȟaŋğí wičháša yámni hípi (Crow men three came-they). Three Crow men came to them[103].

This year’s entry depicts a trader beside the fort and three Crow within the palisade.

1883

Matowakanta.
Matȟó Wakȟáŋ t’Á.
Bear With-Energy died.
Medicine Bear died.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[104].

This year’s entry depicts a bear “with-energy” [wavy lines within its body] above a fort/cabin, indicating that Medicine Bear died at the agency.

1884

Makaqapi.
Makȟá k’apí.
Earth dug-they.
They dug into the earth.

Medicine Bear says: Makȟá k’apí (Earth dug-they). They dug earth[105].

This year’s entry depicts an earthlodge with a heavy line around it. This may indicate that those who had earthlodges did some maintenance this year.

1885

Wag·unapin ta.
Waȟúŋ Nap’íŋ t’Á.
Scorches Necklace died.
Necklace Burn died.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[106].

This year’s entry is depicted with a figure wearing a choker above a fort/cabin.

1886

Wakanpahomini ktepi.
Wakȟáŋpahomni ktépi.
With-Energy-Turns killed-they.
They killed Turns Holy.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[107].

This year’s entry features a figure with stylized hair [Crow perhaps?], wearing a breastplate, and holding a discharging gun. Above the figure appears to be a name glyph, which seems to be something rotating in a counterclockwise direction. Oglála and Sičháŋğu winter counts recall hunting accidents on the Pine Ridge and Rosebud agencies.

1887

Mah·piyaheton miniwani kte.
Maȟpíya Hétoŋ Mníwani kté.
Cloud Horn Turning kill.
Turning Horn Cloud was killed.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[108].

This year’s entry is depicted by three common figures above a fort. The leftmost figure appears to bear a wound, the rightmost figure holds a discharged gun.

There was an Oglála named Horn Cloud and his wife, Nest, however both died about 1890. This year’s pictograph may refer to that incident.

1888

Isun manusa ta.
Išúŋmanuŋ t’Á.
Fails-To-Steal died.
Does Not Steal died.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[109].

This year’s entry depicts a figure imprisoned within the fort’s stockade.

1889

Sunka kan wan kiinyan kdi ta.
Šuŋkawakȟaŋ waŋ kiíyaŋkdi t’Á.
Horse a race-horse died.
A horse died in a horse race.

The Medicine Bear Winter Count says the same[110].

This year’s entry depicts a horse’s head above a fort/cabin.

1890

Tatankaiyotake ktepi.
Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake ktépi.
Bison-Bull Sitting-Down killed-they.
They killed Sitting Bull.

Major McLaughlin ordered the BIA Police to arrest Sitting Bull after word reached him about a ghost dance that was held there at Sitting Bull’s camp along the Grand River. Catch The Bear demanded the release of Sitting Bull, then ran for the officers when it was evident they wouldn’t release him, and shot Captain Bull Head. Bull Head in turn turned and shot Sitting Bull in the side, killing him immediately[111].

This year’s entry is depicted by an upright bison bull and two figures above a fort/cabin. The two figures in hats could represent Captain Bull Head and Sergeant Shave Head who were shot and wounded at nearly the same time.

1891

Matonape ta.
Matȟó Napé t’Á.
Bear Hand died.
Hand Bear died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure in a shirt above a fort/cabin.

The Indian Affairs Commission appointed Left Hand Bear as chief of the Huŋkphápȟa people in the summer of 1866. This may refer to his passing.

1892

Wanbditanka ta.
Waŋbdí Tȟaŋka t’Á.
Eagle Big died.
Big Eagle died.

This year’s entry depicts an eagle above a fort/cabin.

There was a Big Eagle (Mnikȟówožu) who signed the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty. This may refer to his passing.

1893

Akicita wan uta yapi.
Akíčhita waŋ utȟÁ yápi.
Soldier/s a/the to-fire-a-shot they-go.
The soldiers went there and fired a shot.

This year’s entry depicts a horse’s head and something else (a bird perhaps?) above a fort/cabin.

1894

Isanyati hoksina wan kataiyeiciya.
Isáŋyathi hokšína waŋ katáiyeičiya.
Santee boy a shot-himself.
A Santee boy shot himself.

This year’s entry depicts a figure hold a discharged gun above a fort/cabin.

1895

Wanbdiduta ta.
Waŋbdí Dúta t’Á.
Eagle Red died.
Red Eagle died.

This year’s entry depicts a red bird, eagle, above a fort/cabin.

1896

Mazakan narma kdi.
Mázakȟaŋ NaȟmÁ akdí.
Metal-With-Energy To-Conceal-One’s-Own return.
Hides His Gun returned.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin with a name glyph of a gun above his head.

1897

Canteya ta.
Čhaŋtéya t’Á.
His-Heart died.
His Heart died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin with a name glyph that resembles a leaf with stem, but could be a heart.

1898

Sunkahanska ta.
Šuŋká Haŋská t’Á.
Dog Long died.
Long Dog died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin with a name glyph of a dog with an elongated body.

1899

Iyansana ta.
Iŋyáŋšana t’Á.
Stone-Red-[familiar-diminutive] died.
Red Stone died.

The use of “-la,” or “na,” as a suffix, as with a person’s name, indicate a feeling of closeness or affection. The usage here indicates that the person was a beloved figure.

This year’s entry depicts a figure wearing a wapȟégnakA (a type of headwear, usually us quilled slat with feathers and/or plumes) above a fort/cabin with a name glyph of a red circular/oblong shape, probably a “stone,” indicating the name. The figure appears to be wounded, but the entry’s accompanying text indicates that he died (of natural causes) as opposed to being killed. Perhaps he died of natural causes which was somehow related to his old injury.

1900

Ia taninwin ta.
Iyá Taníyaŋ Wiŋ t’Á.
Voice Visible Woman died.
Visible Voice Woman died.

This year’s entry depicts a long haired figure (unplaited hair in pictography generally means this is a woman) above a fort/cabin with a name glyph representative of her voice above her head.

1901

Icabs·inte maza ta.
Ičhápsite Máza t’Á.
Whip metal died.
Iron Whip died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure set left and above a fort/cabin with a name glyph of a horse quirt which appears to be a gray color, definitely not black, which might support the interpretation of the image as that of iron.

1902

Sihawoheyun wan tawiciu kte.
Sihá Wóheyuŋ waŋ tȟawíŋ ičhíu kté.
Foot Bundle a his-wife with kill.
Bundle Foot and his wife were killed.

This year’s entry depicts two figures above a fort/cabin. The left figure appears to have a head wound.

1903

Wamanusicas·a wan ktepi.
Wamánuŋ šičá waŋ ktépi.
To-steal-things bad a kill-they.
They killed a thief.

This year’s entry depicts a lone figure above a fort/cabin wearing a hat with half his body blackened, indicating severe injury. In general, traders or white men are depicted with hats, but in the post-reservation era, native men took to wearing not just non-native clothing, but also hats; he does not have long hair. This figure could well be a white thief who was killed, or a native thief also wearing a hat who was killed. The text accompanying this year’s entry doesn’t indicate either possibility.

1904

Wapahasapa ta.
Wapȟáha Sápa t’Á.
Warbonnet Black died.
Black Warbonnet died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure wearing a warbonnet above a fort/cabin.

1905

Hanbziateyapi.
Háŋpa Zí atéyapi.
Moccasin Yellow for-whom-they-have-for-a-father.
They have Yellow Moccasins for their agent.

This year’s entry depicts a “beefalo” (a bison-cow mix) above a fort/cabin, which possibly represents that Yellow Moccasins is a mixed blood.

1906

Cetanwakinwa ta.
Čhetáŋ Wakhúwa t’Á.
Hawk To-Hunt/Chase died.
Chasing Hawk died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin with a name glyph of a bird of prey with its legs extended to pluck its target.

1907

Wanbdiwakan kataiyeiciya.
Waŋbdí Wakȟáŋ katáiyeičiya.
Eagle With-Energy shot-himself.
Holy Eagle shot himself.

This year’s entry depicts an eagle atop a fort/cabin, a rifle points at the eagle.

1908

Sisseton mazaska icupi.
Sisíthuŋwaŋ mázaska kičhúpi.
Sisíthuŋwaŋ metal-white [silver] to-restore-something-to-someone-them.
The Sisíthuŋwaŋ received a payment due to them.

This year’s entry depicts a circle above a fort/cabin. The outline of the circle is deliberately heavy and is one of the blackest things appearing on the winter count. A lighter circle of gray is painted within the darker one. This represents a silver dollar, or mázaska.

1909

Iyakcunipi ta.
IyÁ Kičhúŋnipi t’Á.
To-Speak To-Desist-Something-They died.
They Stop Talking died.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin. Bold lines radiate out from in front of the figure, representing talking loudly or out loud to others, then nothing.

1910

Tonkasitominiduta ta.
Tȟáŋka Sitómniyaŋ Dúta t’Á.
Big All-Over-In-Every-Direction Red died.
Big Red All Over died.

This probably refers to Átaya Dúta (lit. “Entire Red”), or Red All Over, an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna man on Standing Rock who took his journey around this time.

This year’s entry depicts a figure above a fort/cabin. A name glyph of a red circle appears above the figure, which might represent the figure’s name.

1911

There is no text for this entry.

This is the final entry on the Chandler-Pohrt Winter Count to feature a pictograph. This year’s entry depicts a figure wearing a trailer headdress and an ermine adorned warshirt. A name glyph appears with the figure resembling a horse. This may refer to Chief White Horse who resided at Spirit Lake and who took his journey.

The Iron Hawk Winter Count entry recalls Spotted Horse taking his journey this year[112].

1912

There is no text for this year’s entry, nor the following seven.

This year’s entry depicts a green square. The square, or divided square, has been used to represent farming in Plains Indian pictography. It stands to reason then that this year was a farming year, or a good farming year.

1913-19
These years all have the same simple line demarcating the years. This could reflect the feelings that they’ve entered a time when nothing happens. The line could also represent allotments, fractionization of the reservations, or the division of the reservations when they were opened up for sale to non-natives.

END NOTES
__________

[1] Innis, Ben. "The Heritage of Bloody Knife." In Bloody Knife: Custer's Favorite Scout, 9-12. Revised ed. Bismarck, ND: Smokey Water Press, 1994.

[2] Gayton, Mrs. Henry and Mr. Jim. "Region Three, Sioux County." Interview by Larry Sprunk for the State Historical Society of North Dakota. June 17, 1974.

[3] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[4] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 366.

[5] Howard, James H. "Yanktonai Ethnohistory And The John K. Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 21, no. 73, Part 2 (1976): 46.

[6] Ibid. Pp. 37 & 54.

[7] Hyde, George E. "Indian Paradise." In Spotted Tail's Folk: A History of the Brule Sioux, 25. Norman, Oklahoma: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1961.

[8] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[9] Chardon, F.A. Chardon's Journal At Fort Clark, 1834-1839. Edited by Annie Heloise Abel. 1st Bison Book Edition ed. Lincoln, NB: University Of Nebraska Press, 1997. 123.

[10] Higgenbotham, N.A. "The Wind-Roan Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 26, no. 91 (1981): 20.

[11] Robinson, Doane. A History Of The Dakota Or Sioux Indians. Reprint (1904) ed. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Ross & Haines, 1956. 85-87.

[12] Denig, Edwin Thompson. "Of The Sioux." In Five Indian Tribes Of The Upper Missouri: Sioux, Arikaras, Assiniboines, Crees, And Crows, edited by John C. Ewers, 32-34. Norman, Oklahoma: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1961.

[13] Howard, James H. "Yanktonai Ethnohistory And The John K. Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 21, no. 73, Part 2 (1976): 48.

[14] Ibid. P. 50.

[15] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Anthropological Papers Bulletin 173, no. 61 (1960): 375.

[16] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[17] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Anthropological Papers Bulletin 173, no. 61 (1960): 376-377.

[18] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[19] Ibid.

[20] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[21] Lakota-English Dictionary. Compiled by Rev. Eugene Buechel. Edited by Rev. Paul Manhart. Pine Ridge, SD: Red Cloud Indian School, 1983.

[22] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 379.

[23] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 16.

[24] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[25] Ibid.

[26] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 379.

[27] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[28] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 379-380.

[29] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[30] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 380.

[31] Ibid. P. 381

[32] Ibid.

[33] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 381.

[34] Welch, Col. A.B. "Red Tomahawk, ‘Sitting Bull was my friend, I killed him like this..’" Welch Dakota Papers. April 14, 2012. Accessed January 6, 2016. http://www.welchdakotapapers.com.

[35] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[36] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 381 & 382.

[37] Map Of The Missouri From Its Mouth To Three Forks, Montana, Plat LIII. Washington D.C.: Missouri River Commission, 1895.

[38] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 382.

[39] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[40] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 383.

[41] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[42] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[43] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 384.

[44] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[45] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 18.

[46] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 384.

[47] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[48] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[49] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 19.

[50] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 385.

[51] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[52] Ibid.

[53] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[54] Wooley, David L., and Joseph D. Horse Capture. "Joseph No Two Horns: He Nupa Wanica."American Indian Art Magazine 18, no. 3 (1993): 32-43.

[55] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 19.

[56] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[57] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[58] Higgenbotham, N.A. "The Wind-Roan Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 26, no. 91 (1981): 24.

[59] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 388.

[60] No Two Horns. “No Two Horns Winter Count.” State Historical Society of North Dakota.

[61] Higgenbotham, N.A. "The Wind-Roan Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 26, no. 91 (1981): 24.

[62] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[63] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[64] Vestal, Stanley. "The Captive White Woman." In Sitting Bull: Champion Of The Sioux, A Biography, 64. 1st ed. Norman, OK: University Of Oklahoma Press, 1989.

[65] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[66] Howard, James H. "The British Museum Winter Count." British Museum Occasional Paper, No. 4 (1979): 66.

[67] No Two Horns. “No Two Horns Winter Count.” State Historical Society of North Dakota.

[68] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[69] Ibid.

[70] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 391.

[71] Vestal, Stanley. Warpath: The True Story of the Fighting Sioux Told in a Biography of Chief White Bull. 1st Bison Book Edition ed. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. 267.

[72] Howard, James H. "Yanktonai Ethnohistory And The John K. Bear Winter Count." Plains Anthropologist 21, no. 73, Part 2 (1976): 55.

[73] New Lakota Dictionary. Compiled by Jan Ullrich. Bloomington, IN: Lakota Language Consortium, 2nd Edition, 2011.

[74] Goodhouse, Dakota. "Solar Eclipse Remembered As Fire Cloud." The First Scout. October 24, 2014. http://thefirstscout.blogspot.com.

[75] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[76] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[77] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 21.

[78] Vestal, Stanley. Warpath: The True Story of the Fighting Sioux Told in a Biography of Chief White Bull. 1st Bison Book Edition ed. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. 268.

[79] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[80] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 21.

[81] Sundstrom, Jessie Y., and Rebecca Halfred. “Translation of the Iron Hawk Winter Count.” Unpublished manuscript, 1988.

[82] Mallory, Garrick. "Lone Dog's Winter Count." In Picture-Writing Of The American Indians, 286-287. Reprint (2012) ed. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Dover Publications, 2012.

[83] Mallory, Garrick. "Time - Winter Counts." In Pictographs of the North American Indians, Annual Reports No. 4, 127. Washington DC: Bureau Of American Ethnology, 1886.

[84] Vestal, Stanley. Warpath: The True Story of the Fighting Sioux Told in a Biography of Chief White Bull. 1st Bison Book Edition ed. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. 268.

[85] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[86] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[87] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 22.

[88] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[89] Ibid.

[90] Ibid.

[91] Ibid.

[92] Howard, James H. "Dakota Winter Counts As A Source Of Plains History." Smithsonian Institution, Bureau Of American Ethnology, Bulletin 173, Anthropological Papers, no. 61 (1960): 396.

[93] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[94] Ibid.

[95] Ibid.

[96] Ibid.

[97] Larson, Robert. "The Canadian Exile." In Gall: Lakota War Chief, 170-173. 1st ed. Norman, Oklahoma: University Of Oklahoma Press, 2007.

[98] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[99] High Dog. "High Dog Winter Count." State Historical Society of North Dakota, Interview by Rev. Aaron Beede. 1912.

[100] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[101] Primeau, Tom. "Standing Rock: Heads Of Families By Bands 1885." Primeau. May 1, 1999. Accessed December 28, 2015. http://www.primeau.org.

[102] Praus, Alexis A. The Sioux, 1798-1922: A Dakota Winter Count. Bulletin No. 44. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Cranbrook Institute of Science; Riverby Books, 1962. 24.

[103] Medicine Bear. “Medicine Bear Winter Count.” The Hood Museum of Art, Cat. 117.

[104] Ibid.

[105] Ibid.

[106] Ibid.

[107] Ibid.

[108] Ibid.

[109] Ibid.

[110] Ibid.

[111] Bullhead, Francis. "Letter To The Editor." Sioux County Pioneer, 1910.

[112] Sundstrom, Jessie Y., and Rebecca Halfred. “Translation of the Iron Hawk Winter Count.” Unpublished manuscript, 1988.

Warfare On The Northern Plains: Interpreting The Pictographic Bison Robe

The Pictographic Bison Robe, Peabody Museum.

Warfare On The Northern Plains

Painted Robe Reveals Battle

By Dakota Wind

BISMARCK, N.D. – The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University in Massachusetts has a spectacular collection of Lewis and Clark related artifacts in all the country. The artifacts have been determined to have been collected by the Corps of Discovery who gathered dresses, shirts, and various painted robes in 1804-1806, or by Lt. George Hutter in 1825-1826. In particular, both parties acquired a painted robe depicting conflict either with or against such tribes as the Sioux, Arikara, Hidatsa, and the Mandan.

Castle McLaughlin, Associate Curator of North American Ethnography, Peabody Museum at Harvard, carefully researched the “Pictographic Bison Robe” and has concluded that the robe is likely to have been collected by Hutter, not the Corps of Discovery. McLaughlin noted that another robe was collected by a Charles Wilson Peale in 1826, and that this robe was said to depict the Arikara War of 1823, the first American military campaign against Plains Indians. However, McLaughlin notes, “this is unlikely to be the Peabody robe, which does not depict Anglo-Americans.”[1]

In a telephone interview, McLaughlin offered an updated reflection about the painted bison robe, “The robe is likely to be Siouan in origin, and it was collected after the Corps of Discovery Expedition of 1804-06, maybe not by Hutter.” The Lewis and Clark Collection came to the Peabody Museum from more than one source and at different times.

There are about three major conflicts the Očhéti Šakówiŋ (Seven Council Fires, aka “The Great Sioux Nation”) participated in that fall within a thirty year window: a fight against enemy tribes in the 1790s, a conflict along the Grand River involving the Arikara and Ensign Pryor’s command in 1809, and the Arikara War of 1823.

Warfare At The Turn Of The Century

In the winter of 1794-95, the Dakota camped with the Mandan[2] perhaps to trade but the peace was short lived when a Mandan killed a Dakota with long hair and took his scalp,[3] however other winter counts recall that the Mandan killed a Crow instead, and that may be the case as White Bull recalled this particular conflict at Rawhide Butte.[4] The following year, the Mandan Chief Man-With-A-Hat became noted as a warrior[5], the Mandan knew this great leader by a different name in their own language, Shekek Shote (White Wolf).[6]

In summary, the Očhéti Šakówiŋ waged near continual warfare against such tribes as the Crow, Ponka, Assiniboine, Arikara, and Omaha. In particular, the Očhéti Šakówiŋ continued war against the Omaha until an epidemic of either smallpox or chickenpox struck the Lakȟóta in 1802.[7] The Omaha retaliated in a series of relentless attacks, but when the Lakȟóta recovered sufficiently, a warparty leader raised a pipe with a horsetail affixed to it and waved it over the people, a call to arms.[8] The Lakȟóta rallied together and launched an offensive that left seventy-five Omaha dead and fifty as prisoners.[9]

In 1803, there was one major battle of note, the Battle of Heart River. The northern Očhéti Šakówiŋ known then as Saúŋni, or simply as Saúŋ (White-Rubbed Shirts/Robes), who were made up of Huŋkphápȟa, Oóhenuŋpa, Sihásapa Lakȟóta in alliance with the Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna Dakȟóta[10] fought against the Assiniboine who were possibly allied with the Arikara who were then living at the mouth of Beaver Creek (south of present-day Bismarck, ND). [11]

Conflict At Grand River

A second possible interpretation of the Painted Bison Robe is of the 1808 conflict between Ensign Nathaniel Pryor’s command, the Saúŋ Lakȟóta, and the Arikara. This conflict has its roots in the Corps of Discovery’s visit a few years previous.

In 1804, the Arikara selected a leader, Arketarnarwhar, to descend the Missouri River with an escort provided by coterie from the Corps of Discovery who would escort and interpret his eventual meeting with President Thomas Jefferson back east. The Arikara leader never returned. Manuel Lisa, of the American Fur Company, was charged with delivering the missive of Arketarnarwhar’s death[12], which was found to be of natural causes.[13] The news was carried upriver in 1806 by two French trappers who in turn were detained by the Corps of Discovery on their return journey. The trappers having delivered the Corps news of civilization were dismissed.

When the corps passed by the Arikara villages going downstream they deliberately withheld news of their leader’s death, in fact, the Arikara didn’t hear word of Arketarnarwhar’s death until 1807.[14] The Arikara developed a hostility towards the United States thereafter, and harassed trappers and traders alike coming upriver, and actually halted Ensign Nathaniel Pryor’s expedition to return the Mandan Chief Shehek Shote to his people at Knife River in August 1808 with a war party of about 650 Arikara warriors.[15] Location: where the Grand River converges with the Missouri River near present-day Mobridge, SD.

The Saúŋ Lakȟóta, who had their own mixed history with the Corps of Discovery, were also present when the Arikara stopped the Pryor expedition. The Wapȟóštaŋ Ğí (Brown Hat) Winter Count records the event that a Huŋkphápȟa man named Red Shirt was killed.[16] No Ears recorded the year with the following text, “Ogle Luta on wan itkop ahi ktepi,” which translates a few ways, but essentially means that Red Shirt died in conflict.[17] Lone Dog’s pictograph indicates that Red Shirt died by two arrows[18].

It is possible that Oglé Lutá (Red Shirt), in the Lakȟóta tradition of great leaders, had a different name, Tȟatȟáŋka Sapá (Black Bull). It should be noted that in the Corps of Discovery’s encounter with the Thithúŋwan (Teton) along Bad River in 1804 ended when the Corps gifted a Lakȟóta leader, then Black Bufallo, a hat, a medal, and a red military coat.[19] Black Buffalo intervened on behalf of the Corps of Discovery when the Corps refused to pay a toll. Black Buffalo ordered the warriors to lower their bows. The Corps passed after throwing a twist of tobacco at the feet of the Lakȟóta.

The Arikara War of 1823

The third possibility is the Arikara War of 1823.

The Arikara War saw Colonel Henry Leavenworth ascend the Missouri River to defend the interests of the American Fur Company from the hostile aggression of the Arikara. Leavenworth led a command of six companies of the US Infantry, and an aggrieved William Ashley plus sixty men of the American Fur Company who were accompanied by about 750 Očhéti Šakówiŋ warriors.[20]

The Očhéti Šakówiŋ led the assault on the Arikara village at dawn on Aug. 9, 1823. The fighting consisted of an exchange of gunfire and hand-to-hand fighting until the Arikara retreated behind their stockade. The following morning Leavenworth ordered artillery to commence firing on the Arikara. The Arikara pressed for a cease-fire soon after and Leavenworth heard them out. Thirty Arikara were killed by the artillery in addition to the fifteen from the previous day’s fighting.[21]

Leavenworth negotiated peace with the Arikara. Unbeknownst to Leavenworth, the Arikara were preparing to abandon their village that very night. The peace talks were likely a diversion while the village made ready. The Arikara left that night under Leavenworth’s sleepy watch. The Očhéti Šakówiŋ warriors were anticipating a fight in which they’d get many war honors, but were ultimately disgusted with Leavenworth’s decision to treat with the Arikara. The Očhéti Šakówiŋ raided the Arikara cornfields. Ashley was also disgusted with Leavenworth in that the entire Arikara village wasn’t destroyed.

The Lakȟóta remember the Arikara War of 1823 as “The year of much dried corn.[22]” Many winter counts depict stalks of corn to remember 1823 and frequently reference conflict with the Arikara. It is interesting to note that while Leavenworth organized this punitive campaign against a Plains Indian tribe, and referred to his command, including the Očhéti Šakówiŋ, as the Missouri Legion, that three winter count pictographs actually mentions Leavenworth, his soldiers, or the trappers in his command.

The Swan winter count recalls 1823 as “US troops fought Ree Indians.[23]” The 1823 entry on The Flame winter count is “White and Dakotas fought Rees.” Cloud Shield reveals a little more, “They joined the whites on an expedition up the Missouri River against the Rees.” Lone Dog’s entry says, “White soldiers made their first appearance in the region.” Lone Dog does not mention the Corps of Discovery as his people, the Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna Dakȟóta were stealing horses from the Crow in 1804. Had this band of Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna been at Bad River in 1804, they certainly would have recorded white soldiers ascending the river as Blue Thunder,[24] also an Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna, did.

The battle depicted on the Pictographic Bison Robe could represent the Arikara War of 1823. Because it does not include the representation of white soldiers or trappers does not mean without certainty that it isn’t. Why would it? The Očhéti Šakówiŋ did the actual fighting. The robe depicts warriors fighting warriors. Leavenworth refrained from ordering his infantry to engage in the fighting, but was still involved in the fight through use of his artillery.

Ken Woody (St. Regis Mohawk), Chief of Interpretation, Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, reproduced the Pictographic Bison Robe for the National Forest Service’s Lewis and Clark Interpretive Center, Great Falls, MT. According to Woody, who examined the original, the green quills on the ends of the quilled strip are in fact bird quills. The Mandan and Hidatsa were well known for their quillwork involving the use of bird quills. The feathers would have been collected from sea gulls which came north in the summer to North Dakota. The feathers were stripped and treated for use in quillwork.[25] “The only thing on the robe which would hint of a Mandan or Hidatsa origin is the bird quills for the quilled strip, although if I remember right, most were porcupine quills and only the green quills at the beginning and end were bird quills,” remarked Woody.

It is entirely possible that the Pictographic Bison Robe represents other conflicts not recorded in winter counts or remembered in surviving oral tradition. There seems to be only one certain thing, that the robe was painted before George Catlin and Karl Bodmer for their visits among the first nations of the Upper Great Plains in the 1830s left such an impression with their art, that simple form pictography was transformed with elaborate flourish and became the high plains pictographic art of the middle nineteenth century.

Endnotes:[1] McLaughlin, Castle, Arts Of Diplomacy: Lewis & Clark’s Indian Collection, University of Washington Press, Seattle WA, 2003.
[2] The Rosebud Winter Count.
[3] White Cow Killer Winter Count.
[4] White Bull, Chief Joseph (translated and edited by James H. Howard), The Warrior Who Killed Custer: The Personal Narrative of Chief Joseph White Bull, University of Nebraska Press, London, 1968.
[5] The Flame Winter Count.
[6] The Big Missouri Winter Count. It becomes clear who The-Man-With-The-Hat is when Big Missouri mention that a Mandan chief descended the Missouri River in 1806 with some white men to go meet the Great White Father.
[7] Pp. 130-146, Howard, James H., Fourth Annual Report Of The Bureau Of American Ethnology, Washington DC, Smithsonian, 1886.
[8] The Blue Thunder Winter Count, State Historical Society of North Dakota, Bismarck, ND.
[9] Clark, Capt. William, journal, Sept. 25, 1804.
[10] The John K. Bear Winter Count, 1803.
[11] Pp. 20-58, Howard, James H., Yanktonai Ethnohistory And The John K. Bear Winter Count, Plains Anthropologist: Journal Of The Plains Conference, Memoir 11, 1976.
[12] Page 306, Jackson, Donald C., Journey To The Mandans, 1809: The Lost Narrative Of Dr. Thomas,” Missouri Historical Society Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 3, April, 1964.
[13] Pp. 5-7, Innis, Ben, Bloody Knife: Custer’s Favorite Scout, Smoky Water Press, Bismarck, ND. 1994.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Page 144, Potter, Tracy, Sheheke: Mandan Indian Diplomat, Farcountry Press, Fort Mandan Press, Washburn, ND, 2003.
[16] The Brown Hat (Baptiste Good) Winter Count.
[17] No Ears Winter Count.
[18] Lone Dog Winter Count.
[19] Page 169, Ambrose, Stephen, Undaunted Courage, Simon & Schuster, 1996.
[20] Ibid.
[21] Ibid.
[22] Long Soldier Winter Count, Sitting Bull College, Fort Yates, ND.
[23] The Swan Winter Count, National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, DC. The Swan Winter Count, http://wintercount.si.edu.
[24] Blue Thunder Winter Count, State Historical Society of North Dakota, Bismarck, ND.
[25] Woody, Ken, discussion with author, Nov. 26, 2014.